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ANNUAL REPORT

OF

THE BOARD OF REGENTS

OF THE.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

SHOWING THE

OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE
INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR 1864.

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LETTER

OF THE

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

COMMUNICATING

THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CON-
DITION OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR 1864.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
ayy Washington, March 1, 1865.
In behalf of the Board of Regents, I have the honor to submit
to the Congress of the United States the annual report of the opera-
tions, expenditures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for
the year 1864.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
Hon. H. Hamu,
President of the Senate.
Hon. 8. CoLrax,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS

OF THE

SH TT ESO PaaS eee

SHOWING

THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTI-
TUTION UP TO JANUARY, 1865, AND THE PROCEEDINGS
OF THE BOARD UP TO MARCH 1, 1865.

To the Senate and House of Representatives :

In obedience to the act of Congress of August 10, 1846, establish-
ing the Smithsonian Institution, the undersigned, in behalf of the
Regents, submit to Congress, as a report of the operations, expendi-
tures, and condition of the Institution, the following documents :

1. The Annual Report of the Secretary, giving an account of the
operations of the Institution during the year 1864.

2. Report of the Executive Committee, giving a general statement
of the Smithsonian fund, and also an account of the expenditures for
the year 1864.

8. Proceedings of the Board of Regents up. to March, 1865.

4, Appendix.

Respectfully submitted :
S. P. CHASE, Chancellor.
JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary.

OFFICERS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

MARCH, 1865.

ABRAHAM LINCOLN, ez officio Presiding Officer of the Institution.
SALMON P. CHASE, Chancellor of the Institution.

JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary of the Institution,
SPENCER F. BAIRD, Assistant Secretary.
W. W. SEATON, Treasurer.

WILLIAM J. RHEES, Chief Clerk.

A. D. BACHE,
RICHARD WALLACH, Executive Committee.
RICHARD DELAFIELD,

REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION.

H. HAMLIN, Vice-President of the United States.

S. P. CHASE, Chief Justice of the United States.

R. WALLACH, Mayor of the City of Washington.

L. TRUMBULL, member of the Senate of the United States.
GARRETT DAVIS, member of the Senate of the United States.
pa member of the Senate of the United States.
S. S. COX, member of the House of Representatives.

J. W. PATTERSON, member of the House of Representatives.
H. W. DAVIS, member of the House of Representatives, —

W. B. ASTOR, citizen of New York.

T. D. WOOLSEY, citizen of Connecticut.

L. AGASSIZ, citizen of Massachusetts.

A. D. BACHE, citizen of Washington.

RICHARD DELAFIELD, citizen of Washington.

MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE INSTITUTION.

ABRAHAM LINCOLN, President of the United States.
HANNIBAL HAMLIN, Vice-President of the United States.
W. H. SEWARD, Secretary of State.

W. P. FESSENDEN, Secretary of the Treasury.

E. M. STANTON, Secretary of War.

G. WELLES, Secretary of the Navy.

WM. DENNISON, Postmaster General.

E. BATES, Attorney General.

S. P. CHASE, Chief Justice of the United States.

D. P. HOLLOWAY, Commissioner of Patents.

RICHARD WALLACH, Mayor of the City of Washington.

HONORARY MEMBER.

J. P. USHER, Secretary of the Interior, (ez officio. \

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION

' OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

[PRESENTED IN THE FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, AND
ADOPTED BY THE BOARD OF REGENTS, DECEMBER 13, 1847.]

ENP OY torr PON:

General considerations which should serve as a guide in adopting a Plan
of Organization.

1. Witu oF Suituson.. The property is bequeathed to the United
States of America, ‘‘to found at Washington, under the name of the
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, an establishment for the increase and diffu-
sion of knowledge among men.’’

2.The bequest is for the benefit of mankind. The government
of the United States is merely a trustee to carry out the design of
the testator.

3. The Institution is not a national establishment, as is frequently
supposed, but the establishment of an individual, and is to bear and
perpetuate his name.

4. The objects of the Institution are, Ist, to increase, and 2d, to
diffuse knowledge among men.

5. These two objects should not be confounded with one another.
The first is to enlarge the existing stock of knowledge by the addition
of new truths; and the second, to disseminate knowledge, thus in-
creased, among men. |

6. The will makes no restriction in favor of any particular kind of
knowledge ; hence all branches are entitled to a share of attention.

7. Knowledge can be increased by different methods of facilitating
and promoting the discovery of new truths ; and can be most exten-
sively diffused among men by means of the press,

8. To effect the greatest amount of good, the organization should
be such as to enable the Institution to produce results, in the way of
increasing and diffusing knowledge, which cannot be produced either
at all or so efficiently by the existing institutions in our country.

9. The organization should also be such as can be adopted provi-
sionally ; can be easily reduced to practice, receive modifications, or
be abandoned, in whole or in part, without a sacrifice’ of the funds.

8 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

10. In order to compensate, in some measure, for the loss of time
occasioned by the delay of eight years in establishing the Institution,
a considerable portion of the interest which has accrued should be
added to the principal.

11. In proportion to the wide field of knowledge to be cultivated,
the funds are small. Economy should, therefore, be consulted in the
construction of the building ; and not only the first cost of the edifice
should be considered, but also the continual expense of keeping it in
repair, and of the support of the establishment necessarily connected
with it. There should also be but few individuals permanently sup-
ported by the Institution.

12. The plan and dimensions of the building should be determined
by the plan of the organization, and not the converse.

13. It should be recollected that mankind in general are to be
benefited by the bequest, and that, therefore, all unnecessary expen-
diture on local objects would be a perversion of the trust.

14. Besides the foregoing considerations, deduced immediately from
the will of Smithson, regard must be had to certain requirements of
the act of Congress establishing the Institution. These are, a library,
a museum, and a gallery of art, with a building on a liberal scale to
contain them.

SECTION I.

Plan of Organization of the Institution in accordance with the foregoing
deductions from the will of Smithson.

To INCREASE KNOWLEDGE. It is proposed—

1. To stimulate men of talent to make original researches, by offer-
ing suitable rewards for memoirs containing new truths ; and,

2. To appropriate annually a portion of the income for particular
researches, under the direction of suitable persons.

To DIFFUSE KNOWLEDGE. It is proposed—

1. To publish a series of periodical reports on the progress of the
different branches of knowledge ; and,

2. To publish occasionally separate treatises on subjects of general
interest.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE.

I. By stimulating researches.

1. Facilities afforded for the production of original memoirs on all
branches of knowledge. :

2. The memoirs thus obtained to be published in a series of vol-
umes, in a quarto form, and entitled Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge.

3. No memoir on subjects of physical science to be accepted for

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 9

publication which does not furnish a positive addition to human
knowledge, resting on original research ; and all unverified specula-
tions to be rejected.

4. Each memoir presented to the Institution to be submitted for
examination to a commission of persons of reputation for learning in
the branch to which the memoir pertains; and to be accepted for
publication only in case the report of this commission is favorable.

5. The commission to be chosen by the officers of the Institution,
and the name of the author, as far as practicable, concealed, unless
a favorable decision be made.

6. The volumes of the memoirs to be exchanged for the Trans-
actions of literary and scientific societies, and copies to be given to
all the colleges and principal libraries, in this country. One part of
the remaining copies may be offered for sale ; and the other carefully
preserved, to form complete sets of the work, to supply the demand
from new institutions.

7. Anabstract, or popular account, of the contents of these memoirs
to be given to the public through the annual report of the Regents to
Congress.

II. By appropriating a part of the income, annually, to special objects
of research, under the direction of suitable persons.

1. The objects and the amount appropriated, to be recommended
by counsellors of the Institution.

2. Appropriations in different years to different objects; so that
in course of time each branch of knowledge may receive a share.

3. The results obtained from these appropriations to be published,
with the memoirs before mentioned, in the volumes of the Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge.

4, Kxamples of objects for which appropriations may be made.

(1.) System of extended meteorological observations for solving
the problem of American storms.

(2.) Explorations in descriptive natural history, and geological,
magnetical, and topographical surveys, to collect materials for the
formation of a Physical Atlas of the United States.

(5.) Solution of experimental problems, such as a new determina-
tion of the weight of the earth, of the velocity of electricity, and of
light ; chemical analyses of soils and plants ; collection and publica-
tion of scientific facts, accumulated in the offices of government.

(4.) Institution of statistical inquiries with reference to physical,
moral, and political subjects.

(5.) Historical researches, and accurate surveys of places celebrated
in American history.

(6.) Ethnological researches, particularly with reference to the
different racesof men in North America; also, explorations and ac-
curate surveys of the mounds and other remains of the ancient people
of our country.

10 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN FOR DIFFUSING KNOWLEDGE.

I. By the publication of a series of reports, giving an account of the new
discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year in
all branches of knowledge not strictly professional.

1. These reports will diffuse a kind of knowledge generally in-
teresting, but which, at present, is inaccessible to the public. Some
of the reports may be published annually, others at longer intervals,
as the income of the Institution or the changes in the branches of
knowledge may indicate.

2. The reports are to be prepared by collaborators eminent in the
different branches of knowledge. ‘

3. Each collaborator to be furnished with the journals and publi-
cations, domestic and foreign, necessary to the compilation of his
report ; to be paid a certain sum for his labors, and to be named on
the title-page of the report.

4. The reports to be published in separate parts, so- that persons
interested in a particular branch can procure the parts relating to it
without purchasing the whole.

5. These reports may be presented to Congress, for partial distri-
bution, the remaining copies to be given to literary and scientific in-
stitutions, and sold to individuals for a moderate price.

The following are some of the subjects which may be embraced in
the reports :*

I. PHYSICAL CLASS.

1. Physics, including astronomy, natural philosophy, chemistry,
and meteorology.

2. Natural history, including botany, zoology, geology, &c.

3. Agriculture.

4. Application of science to arts.

II. MORAL AND POLITICAL CLASS.

5. Ethnology, including particular history, comparative philology,
antiquities, &c.

6. Statistics and political economy.

7. Mental and moral philosophy.
8. A survey of the political events of the world ; penal reform, &c.

III. LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS.

9. Modern literature.

10. The fine arts, and their application to the useful arts.
11. Bibliography.

12. Obituary notices of distinguished individuals.

Il. By the publication of separate treatises on subjects of general interest.

1. These treatises may occasionally consist of valuable memoirs
translated from foreign languages, or of articles prepared under the

*This part of the plan has been but partially carried out.

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 11

direction of the Institution, or procured by offering premiums for the
best exposition of a given subject.

2. The treatises should, in all cases, be submitted to a commission
of competent judges, previous to their publication.

3. As examples of these treatises, expositions may be obtained of
the present state of the several branches of knowledge mentioned in
the table of reports.

SECTION II.

Plan of organization, in accordance with the terms of the resolutions of
the Board of Regents providing for the two modes of increasing and
diffusing knowledge.

1. The act of Congress establishing the Institution contemplated
the formation of a library and a museum; and the Board of Regents,
including these objects in the plan of organization, resolved to divide
the incomé* into two equal parts.

2. One part to be appropriated to increase and diffuse knowledge
by means of publications and researches, agreeably to the scheme
before given. The other part to be appropriated to the formation
of a library and a collection of objects of nature and of art.

3. These two plans are not incompatible with one another.

4. To carry out the plan before described, a library will be re-
quired, consisting, Ist, of a complete collection of the transactions
and proceedings of all the learned societies in the world; 2d, of the
more important current periodical publications, and other works
necessary in preparing the periodical reports.

5. The Institution should make special collections, particularly of
objects to illustrate and verify its own publications.

6. Also, a collection of instruments of .research in all branches of
experimental science.

7. With reference to the collection of books, other than those
mentioned above, catalogues of all the different libraries in the
United States should be procured, in order that the valuable books
first purchased may be such as are not to be found in the United
States.

8. Also, catalogues of memoirs, and of books and other materials,
should be collected for rendering the Institution a centre of biblio-
graphical knowledge, whence the student may be directed to any
work which he may require.

9. It is believed that the collections in natural history will increase
by donation as rapidly as the income of the Institution can make pro-
vision for their reception, and, therefore, it will seldom be necessary
to purchase articles of this kind.

10. Attempts should be made to procure for the gallery of art
casts of the most celebrated articles of ancient and modern sculpture.

*The amount of the Smithsonian bequest received into the Treasury of the
Winiedistaneswisaecis ce pam ae eter oe psa ee treo ot RE A Se A ee $515, 169 00
Interest on the same to July 1, 1846, (devoted to the erection of the building). 24 2, 129 00
Annual income from the bequest re Ld i lel gD me! Bie a 30,910 14

12 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

11. The arts may be encouraged by providing a room, free of
expense, for the exhibition of the objects of the Art-Union and other
similar societies.

12. A small appropriation should annually be made for models of
antiquities, such as those of the remains of ancient temples, &c.

13. For the present, or until the building is fully completed, be-
sides the Secretary, no permanent assistant will be required, except
one, to act as librarian. ;

14. The Secretary, by the law of Congress, is alone responsible to
the Regents. He shall take charge of the building and property,
keep a record of proceedings, discharge the duties of librarian and
keeper of the museum, and may, with the consent of the Regents,
employ assistants.

15. The Secretary and his assistants, during the session of Congress,
will be required to illustrate new discoveries in science, and to exhibit
new objects of art. Distinguished individuals should also be invited
to give lectures on subjects of general interest.

This programme, which was at first adopted provisionally, has be-
come the settled policy of the Institution. The only material change
is that expressed by the following resolutions, adopted January 15,
1855, viz:

Resolved, That the Tth resolution passed by the Board of Regents,
on the 26th of January, 1847, requiring an equal division of the
income between the active operations and the museum and library,
when the buildings are completed, be, and it is hereby, repealed.

Resolved, That hereafter the annual appropriations shall be appor-
tioned specifically among the different objects and operations of the
Institution, in such manner as may, in the judgment of the Regents,
be necessary and proper for each, according to its intrinsic import-
ance and a compliance in good faith with the law.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution :

GENTLEMEN : The duty of presenting to you the annual report of
the operations and state of the Smithsonian Institution recurs, on
this occasion, under peculiar circumstances. On the 24th of last
month, the day before that designated for the annual meeting of the
Board, a fire occurred, of which an account is given in the Report
of a Special Committee. It destroyed the documents contained in
the Secretary’s office, and among these was the manuscript of the
annual report, which was ready for presentation. The destruction
of this involved the necessity of rewriting the whole article, and has
delayed its presentation until the present time.

Another circumstance which characterizes our present meeting is
that, for the first. time in the history of the Institution, not one of
those who constituted the original Board of Regents is now in attend-
ance. With the exception of a single member, (Professor Bache, )
_ who is seeking in a foreign country the restoration of his health,
an entire change has taken place in the personal composition of the
Board. This change has been much more rapid during the last four
years, or since the commencement of the war. Within that period,
death has repeatedly cast its shadow over the Institution. Indeed,
the number of those connected with the establishment who have
departed this life since the epoch mentioned exceeds the number in
all the years that preceded. The death of Judge Douglas, of Illinois,
of Senator Pearce, of Maryland, and that of Dr. Felton, of Cambridge,
all prominent members of the Board, were communicated at the last
and the preceding meetings; and I have now to add, as having oc-
curred since the last session, the death of General Totten, who was
one of the Regents named in the original act of Congress organizing
the Institution, and who continued during life to be an active member
of the Board, and by repeated election, one of the executive commit-
tee; that of Chief Justice Taney, who ever evinced a lively interest
in the welfare of the Institution, was one of the original members
of the Board, and for a long time held the office of its chairman; and,
lastly, that of Judge Dayton, whose decease, in the full enjoyment of

>

14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

the honors of his high position as the representative of his country
at the court of France, we have recently been called to mourn.
Though the latter was unable to attend the meetings of the Board,
he rendered good service to the Institution in extending its reputa-
tion and promoting its correspondence abroad. Besides this mortality
among the Regents, there have also occurred in the same period four
deaths among the assistants and employés of the establishment, and
two among the honorary members, making twelve in number thus
removed.

This rapidly recurring mortality has not failed to impress me pro-
foundly with the instability and uncertainty of life, and has led
me, in view of the late conflagration and the loss of the counsel of
those to whose generous and zealous co-operation I have been so long
indebted, to regard with more than usual solicitude the proper dis-
charge of the responsible duties which are intrusted to me as the
principal executive officer of the establishment.

Yet, however grieved at the loss occasioned by the fire, and sad-
dened by the departure of those to whom I have just referred, I have
not permitted myself for a moment to doubt that I shall continue to
find in the present members the same cordial co-operation and liberal
support which has characterized the guardians of the Institution for
the past twelve years. Whatever may have been the diversity of
views previous to that period, no difference of opinion has since been
expressed as to the propriety of the general policy which has gov-
erned the operations of the establishment, nor has a doubt been inti-
mated as to the value of the results produced or their strict conformity
with the intentions of Smithson. This harmony is, perhaps, more
worthy of remark, when it is remembered that in the choice of the
Regents they have been designedly selected by Congress from each
of the prominent political parties of the day. ‘Men of the most con-
flicting opinions meet here as on a common ground of friendly sym-
pathy, impressed with the feeling that rivalry and prejudice should
hold no sway in the presence of interests whose, universality and
permanency properly withdraw them from the sphere of popular and
temporary excitement. Hence my enforcement of the rule excluding
from the lecture-room of the Institution topics of a partisan and irri-
tating character has been fully sustained; while, at the same time,
the course which has been pursued of rendering the government in
its late trials every aid which could be supplied by scientific re-
search has been warmly approved.

As most persons are probably entirely ignorant of the services

, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15

really rendered to the government by the Institution, I may here state
the fact that a large share of my time—all, indeed, which could be
spared from official duties—has been devoted for the last four years to
investigations required by the public exigencies. Within this period
several hundred reports, requiring many experiments, and pertaining
either to proposals purporting to be of high national importance, or
relating to the quality of the multifarious articles offered in fulfilment
of legal contracts, have been rendered. The opinions advanced in
many of these reports not only cost much valuable time, but also in-
volved grave responsibilities. While, on the one hand, the rejection
of a proposition would be in contravention to the high importance
claimed for it by its author, on the other the approval of it would per-
haps incur the risk of the fruitless expenditure of a large amount of
public money. It is not necessary, I trust, to say that the labor thus
rendered was entirely gratuitous, or that in the judgment pronounced
in any case no regard was paid to the interested solicitations or per-
sonal influence of the parties concerned; on the contrary, it has in
some instances resulted from the examination of materials sold to the
government that attempted fraud has been exposed and the baffled
speculator received his due reward in condemnation and punishment.
These facts, it is thought, will be deemed a sufficient answer to
those who have seemed disposed to reproach the Institution with the
want of a more popular demonstration, but far less useful or efficient
aid in the support of the government.

At the close of 1864 the affairs of the Institution were in a highly
prosperous condition. It will be seen by a reference to the report
of the executive committee that—

First. The whole amount of money originally derived from the
bequest of Smithson is still in the treasury of the United States,
bearing interest at six per cent., paid semi-annually, and yielding
_ $30,910.

Second. Seventy-five thousand dollars of an extra fund are in
bonds of the State of Indiana, at five per cent. interest, also paid
semi-annually, yielding $3,750.

Third. Fifty-three thousand five hundred dollars of the same fund
are in bonds of the State of Virginia, twelve thousand in those of
Tennessee, and five hundred in those of Georgia, from which nothing
has been derived since the commencement of the war.

Fourth. A balance of upwards of $29,000 is now in the hands of
the treasurer of the Institution. The only difference in this state-

16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ment and that of last year is that the balance now in the hands of
the treasurer is $2,500 less than before. This difference is mainly
due to the increase of prices and the consequent necessity of a greater
expenditure in carrying on the ordinary operations.

In view of the great expenditures of the government on account of
the war, the Institution did not at first claim, as it might reasonably
have done, to have the annual income from the original bequest paid
in specie, as all the older funded debts of the United States are paid.
But since a large outlay will be required to repair the damages caused
by the fire, the necessity could not be avoided of calling the atten-
tion of the Secretary of the Treasury to this measure. That this
claim is a just one was the unanimous opinion of the Board of
Regents, and among them of Chief Justice Chase, and in accordance
with the instructions of the Board I have presented this matter to
the department. It was referred by the Secretary to his legal ad-
viser, the Solicitor of the Treasury, who has decided that in accord-
ance with the usage of the government the Institution is entitled to
receive the interest from the original bequest of Smithson in coin.
The premium on this will therefore, in future, increase the balance
in the hands of the treasurer.*

It was mentioned in the last report that a part of the original be-
quest, amounting to £5,015, was left by Mr. Rush in England as the
principal to secure an annuity payable to the mother of Smithson’s
nephew. The annuitant having died, a power of attorney was sent
in November, 1862, to Messrs Fladgate, Clark and Finch, (the same
firm originally employed by Mr. Rush,) to collect the money. After
a considerable delay, arising principally from technical difficulties,
the money was obtained and deposited to the order of the Institution,
with George Peabody & Co., bankers, London. It was subsequently
drawn through the agency of the Secretary of the Treasury, and, in
accordance with the law of Congress directing that the money of the
Smithsonian bequest should be invested in United States securities,
it was expended in the purchase of government bonds, bearing in-
terest at the rate of 7,3; per cent. The amount realized in bonds of
this denomination, at par, was $54,150. It was at first supposed that
this money, or at least the interest upon it, could immediately be ap-
plied to the uses of the Institution, but from a critical examination
of the enactments of Congress in reference to the Smithsonian fund,

* The premium on the coin received since the presentation of the report, on account of the
interest due Ist January, was $7,472 70, which sum added to $29,484 08 gives $36,956 78
as the amount in the hands of the treasurer

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17

it was found that the appropriation of the bequest by the act organ-
izing the establishment in 1846, related only to that part of the be-
quest which had already been received, and made no provision for
the disposition of the residuary legacy which has just become avail-
able. It can scarcely be doubted, however, but that Congress in-
tended to appropriate the whole of the bequest to the maintenance
of the establishment; still, for this purpose, a special act will be
required, and it is desirable that the sum recently received be de-
posited in the treasury on the same condition with the amount origi-
nally obtained, that the interest alone shall be subject to expenditure.
In this connexion it is proper to remark that Mr. Peabody, who
received the deposit of the fund, so far from claiming the usual com-
mission, allowed four per cent. on the money while it remained in his
hands.

It will be seen from what follows in this report that all parts of the
programme have been prosecuted during the past year with as much
energy as the means at our disposal would permit, and that although,
in some particulars, not as much has been accomplished as in pre-
vious years, the inequality will, it is hoped, be attributed, as it is
properly referable, to the difficulties under which the Institution, in
common with the whole country, has been laboring.

Publications.—The whole number of pages issued during the year
amount to 872 quarto and 1,657 octavo.

The thirteenth volume of the Contributions has been distributed to
public libraries, and the fourteenth is nearly completed, and will be
published in the course of a few months. It will consist of the fol-
lowing papers:

1. The third and fourth series or concluding parts of the discus-
sion of the magnetic and meteorological observations, made at the
Girard College observatory, Philadelphia, by Professor A. D. Bache,
Superintendent of the United States Coast Survey.

2. On the construction of a silvered glass telescope, 15} inches in
aperture, and its use in celestial photography, by Dr. Henry Dra-
per, of the University of New York.

3. A memoir on the palzontology of the Upper Missouri, by F.
B. Meek and F. V. Hayden.—Part 1.

4. A memoir on the cretaceous reptiles of the United States, by
Dr. Joseph Leidy, of the University of Pennsylvania.

It was intended that Dr. Dean’s paper on the medulla oblongata,

described in the last report, and partially distributed in separate num-
28

18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

bers during the year, should form a part of this volume ; unfortu-
nately, however, the plates intended for its illustration were destroyed
in the fire, and its place in the volume has been supplied by the fourth
article, which has since been presented for publication.

In the reports for the last three years an account has been given
of a series of papers containing the deductions from the magnetic ob-
servations at Girard College, Philadelphia, by Professor A. D. Bache,
Superintendent United States Coast Survey. The whole of this series
of papers was divided into four sections, each containing three parts.
The object of the whole series is to present the results deduced from
the changes observed in the direction and intensity of the magnetic
force of the earth as apparently affected by the position of the sun
and moon relative to the earth and to each other.

The first section related to the disturbances in the line of the de-
clination, or of the fitful variation, as it is called, of the magnetic
needle, and to the regular variations of the declination.

The second section related to the variation in the intensity of the
magnetic force of the earth, estimated in a horizontal direction.

The third section related to the same force as estimated in a verti-
cal direction.

The fourth section relates to the perturbations or fitful changes in
the direction and intensity of the total magnetic force of the earth
as estimated in the direction of the dipping needle.

The first three of these sections have been described in previous
reports, and it now only remains to give an account of the fourth and
last.

The data for the deductions given in this section are the quantities
observed in the variations of the horizontal and vertical components
of the magnetic force, expressed in minute scale divisions corrected
for progressive changes in the magnetism of the bars and for changes
due to temperature. The object of the investigation was to deter-
-mine the law of the great disturbances to which the total intensity
and direction of the magnetic force of the earth is subjected. It is
well known that the intensity and direction of the magnetic force of
the earth do not remain the same from hour to hour, but are subject
to regular fluctuations connected with the day and the season, and
also to larger perturbations, which have until lately been considered
fitful, and have therefore received the name of magnetic storms. The
special object of investigation of the first part of the fourth series is
to ascertain the average character of the large disturbances, and to

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19

deduce, if possible, the law by which they are governed. This is
the most intricate part of the whole series, and is the final object to
which the preceding investigations were preparatory. From a care-
ful study of all the observations on the dip, it was found that 1,446
might be considered as giving abnormal values, and of the total force
of the earth’s magnetism 1,470 indicated abnormal changes, which
amounted to about one-fifteenth part of the whole number of obser-
‘vations. These abnormal disturbances were analyzed in relation to
their frequency during the hours of the day, the month of the year,
and successive years ; they were also studied as to their tendency to
exhibit an increase or diminution in their variations and the times of
the greatest and least action in relation to the periods above men-
tioned. This part ends with a table of the relative magnitude of the
disturbances and a comparison of those of Toronto and Philadelphia,
from which it appears that in some cases there is an agreement in
the character of the simultaneous changes in the two places, and at
others not.

The second part of the fourth section treats of the solar diurnal
and annual inequality of the dip and total force, that is, of the changes
due to the sun which take place in the dip and total force from
hour to hour and from month to month. In this investigation all the
greater perturbations are omitted and the laws of the simpler
or more normal changes are sought. The diurnal changes in the dip
are shown analytically and graphically for each month and for the
whole year. The general character of the curve exhibits a maxi-
mum at about 11 a. m. and a minimum atabout 5 a. m., with a range
of one minute and two-tenths—a quantity too minute to be recognized
by the ordinary dip circle, and which can only be observed by the
differential reflecting instrument. In summer the epochs occur ear-
lier, with a range of a minute and a half, while in winter they occur
later, with a range of only one minute. There is also a secondary
fluctuation of small magnitude. The diurnal deviation of the dip is
greatest about the time of the equinoxes, and of these maxima that
of the winter is the least. The diurnal changes in the total force as
deduced from the average of the year are represented by a single
crested curve, but from the average of the observations in winter
alone this assumes the form of a double curve. The principal maxi-
mum as deduced from the whole year coincides with the hour of
_ 2p. m., and in winter occurs about an hour and ahalf earlier. The
principal minimum coincides with 10 p. m., and occurs in winter about
two hours earlier. This part ends with an attempt to deduce from
the data the annual changes in dip and intensity. The result, how-

20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ever, is not entirely satisfactory on account of the large disturbances
due to variations of temperature, changes of the magnetism and ad-
justment of the instrument.

The third part of the fourth section, or the twelfth part of the
entire series, contains the result of the observations made with a
portable dip circle constructed by Robinson, of London, the same
which had been previously used by Professor Bache in his magnetic
observations in Pennsylvania and adjacent States, and alsoin Europe.
The observations were made weekly during a period of nearly two
and a half years; the monthly and annual mean observations of the
dip were tabulated and were found to indicate an annual decrease of
one minute and two-tenths in this element. The same paper con-
tains a collection of observations on the dip at different points in
Philadelphia by different observers, from which a similar change in
the dip has been deduced. The least dip occurred in January, 1840,
and increased for several years after that date. It is probable, how-
ever, from some subsequent investigations by Mr. Schott of observa-
tions at other places, that the minimum obtained at Philadelphia,
above mentioned, was of a secondary character, and that a still
smaller dip will hereafter be observed. But this point will be cleared
up in a few years by observations now in process of collection. The
discussion of this part, and indeed the whole of the series, ends
with a table of magnetic constants for Girard College, namely: of
the declination, or variation, as it is sometimes called; of the dip;
of the horizontal, vertical, and total force, all expressed in absolute
measures, for five different epochs and for one mean epoch, that for
January, 1843, for which the declination is 3° 32’ W., the dip 71° 59’
N., the horizontal force 4.173, the vertical force 12.83, and the total
force 13.49, in units of one foot, one grain, and one second of mean
time.

From all the investigations on this subject up to the present time
we may infer, first, that the earth is a great magnet, having a natural,
and in one sense a permanent, polarity; second, that this polarity
is disturbed in intensity and direction by the varying effect of the
heat of the sun; third, that the magnetism of the earth is affected
by that of the sun and moon; and fourth, it is probable that magnetic
polarity is common to all the bodies of the solar system.

The second paper in the thirteenth volume of the Contributions-—
that on the silvered glass telescope—is fully described in an article
at the end of this report, copied from the ‘‘ Intellectual Observer,’’
of London.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. AL

The third paper in the volume, on the palwontology of the Upper
Missouri, was described in the last report. It occupies 158 pages,
and is illustrated by five plates of figures engraved on stone.

A full account of the fourth paper, on the cretaceous reptiles of
the United States, as given by the author, is also appended at the
close of this report.

Miscellaneous Collections.—On account of the continued increase in
the price of printing and paper, and the unexpected length to which
some of the works were tending, I thought it advisable to suspend,
for the present, the general publication of this series. Of the list
of works it comprised, as given in previous reports, the only ones
published since the last session of the Board are the second part of
Binney’s Bibliography of American Conchology, Meek’s Check Lists
of Fossils, and the supplement to Loew’s Diptera.

The first of these contains an account of the writings of foreign
naturalists relative to American conchology, and also additions and
corrections of the first volume, with a copious index of authors and
names of species. It forms an octavo volume of 300 pages.

The second work consists of check lists of all the species of creta-
ceous, jurassic, and miocene invertebrate fossils of North America
which had been described up to the end of 1863. These constitute an
important aid in the labor of cataloguing and labelling collections.
The manuscript of another number of the same series, prepared by
Mr. Conrad, of Philadelphia, has been received. It gives a list of the
eocene invertebrate fossils, and, as the work is much wanted to assist
in the distribution of specimens, it will be put to. press immediately.

The other article of the Miscellaneous Collections published during
the past year is the supplement and completion of the second part
of the monograph of the Diptera of North America, by H. Loew.
A general account of the work on the diptera (comprising flies, mus-
quitoes, &c.) is given in the report for 1861. This order of insects
has perhaps a wider distribution than any other known, and, from
the variety and the minuteness of the specimens, is difficult of study
and classification. Before attempting to give a monograph of the
whole order, it was thought proper to print a catalogue of all the
genera which had been described, and this work (prepared by Baron
Osten Sacken) was published in 1858. The preparation of the mon-
ograph was intrusted to Dr. H. Loew, of Meseritz, Prussia, one of
the most eminent naturalists in this line now living.

In the first part of this work is an essay on the terminology of

/

3 - REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

diptera, a sketch of the systematic arrangement of the order, with
the genera found in North America. It occupies 221 pages, and is
illustrated by two plates. The second part is occupied with a mono-
graph of the American Dolichopodide. For a large portion of the
materials on which both parts of this work are based the Institution
is indebted to the liberal assistance of Baron Osten Sacken, though
some interesting species were communicated to Mr. Loew by Mr.
Le Baron, of Illinois, and by Professor Macklin, of Helsingfors, col-
lected by Mr. Sahlberg. The types of a collection were also lent to
him by the directors of the Hof Naturalien Kabinet, of Vienna.

Although the materials placed at the disposal of the author were
large, they did not reach the extent desired for the preparation of a
complete monograph. The hope is, therefore, expressed that ad-
ditional collections will be made to complete the work, and for this
purpose the request is earnestly urged on all North American col-
lectors who take an interest in this order of insects, to favor the
enterprise by sending specimens to the Institution, which may be
transmitted to Dr. Loew.

The fauna of North American Dolichopodide far exceeds the
European in the variety of forms and in the number of species.
A striking circemstance connected with this class of insects as found
in North America is their remarkable analogy to the remains of the
fossil fauna of the same family preserved in amber. In both there
is the same abundance of species of a particular genus, difficult to
distinguish on account of their close resemblance. It would appear
from this, that if there is a gradual variation of species under varying
conditions of existence, this variation has been less in regard to
American insects of this class than in those of Europe. It is import-
ant in the progress of science not ouly to trace the limits of different
faunas, but to compare those of a similar class in different countries.
At present, however, this cannot be done with any degree of pre-
cision, except in the case of the American and European insect
fauna. In this case it is distinctly perceived that the two approach
each other in the species of several genera, while in others the
species are identical, and again those which are identical in both are
very unequally represented in the two countries. Of the species
common to Hurope and North America, it is not improbable that
some of them should have been accidentally imported in ships from
the former. a

The second part, including the supplement, consists of 371 pages,
and is illustrated by five plates.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23

_ Two other works of the same series were completed, and would
have been immediately published had the manuscripts not been de-
stroyed by the fire. The first of these was a monograph of the
Myriapoda, by Dr. H. C. Wood, and the other a monograph on the
Limnobina, by Baron Osten Sacken.

Reports.—The annual reports to Congress are printed at the expense
of the government as public documents, with the exception of the
wood-cuts, which are furnished by the Institution; and it is gratifying
to be able to state that for a number of years there has not been a
dissenting vote in Congress on the adoption of the order to print the
usual number of ten thousand extra copies of this work. The manu-
script of the report for 1863 was unfortunately mislaid at the Capitol,
and the public printer was therefore obliged to delay the publication
on account of other more pressing demands of the departments of the
government. Itis much to be regretted that at the recent fire at
the Institution all the copies of the reports on hand for general
distribution to individuals were destroyed, so that at present it
will be impossible to supply the many applications which are made
_ for copies of the back volumes of the series. The reports for 1861
and 1862 were stereotyped, and when the cost of press-work and
paper is reduced to its normal state, a new edition of these may be
struck off and disposed of at the mere price of production.

The report for 1863 contains in the appendix a course of lectures
on the principles of linguistic science, by Professor W. D. Whitney,
of Yale College; a eulogy of Beautemps-Beaupre, translated by C. A.
Alexander, esq., a continuation of the series of memoirs of distin-
guished members of the French Academy of Sciences; an account of
the origin and history of the Royal Society of London, prepared by
the same; an exposition of the modern theory of chemical types,
by Dr. Charles M. Wetherill; an original article on the method of
preserving Lepidoptera, with illustrations, by Titian R. Peale, esq.;
an account of a remarkable accumulation of bats at the residence, in
Maryland, of M. Figaniere, Portuguese minister; a number of articles
on ethnology, giving an account of ancient remains in various parts
of America and Europe. There are also a number of translations
made expressly for the Institution, viz: researches on the phenomena
which accompanied the propagation of electricity in highly rarefied
elastic fluids, by Professor de la Rive; report on the proceedings of
the Society of Physics and Natural History of Geneva, by Professor
Marcet; the commencement of Plateau’s researches on the figures of

24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

equilibrium of a liquid mass withdrawn from the action of gravity;
an account of the history of discovery relative to magnetism; recent
researches relative to the nebule, by Professor Gautier; an article
from the annals of the Observatory at Madrid, by Miguel Merino, on
the investigations made to determine the form and volume of the
earth; Arago’s account of aeronautic voyages performed with a view
to the advancement of science, to which is added from an English
publication Mr. Glaisher’s account of his recent ascensions in Eng-
land; the first part of an interesting and valuable account of the ab-
original inhabitants of the Californian peninsula, by Baegert, a Jesuit
missionary who lived there seventeen years during the second half
of the last century; and an article from a German scientific periodical
on purple and azure dyeing in ancient and modern times. At the end
of the volume a few of the more important tables of weights and
measures, especially needed for reference in some of the preceding
articles, have been added.

Ethnology.—The publications of the Institution relative to eth-
nology during the past year are those given in the appendix to the
last report, the most important of which isa translation by Professor
Rau, of an account of the aboriginal inhabitants of the Californian
peninsula, by Baegert, a German Jesuit missionary. The book from
which this translation was made was published in Germany in 1773,
and is now very scarce and almost unknown in this country. It will be
considered, we doubt not, at this time, an interesting contribution to
the ethnology as wellas the early history of a part of the world which
has of late years occupied so much of the public attention. Mr. Rau
has not given a translation in the strict sense of the word, but a re-
production of the work only so far as it relates to ethnological matters,
his object being to rescue from oblivion facts relating to the history
of a portion of the American race. The second part of this work will
be published in the appendix to the present report.

There is a growing taste for the study of ethnology in this country,
and consequently a desire to form collections illustrating the condition
of the American aborigines in different parts of the continent. In
order to encourage this tendency, and to bring together for critical
study and comparison the scattered specimens which exist in this
country, the Institution has requested, either as a gift or a loan,
specimens of the arts and other remains found in mounds, excavations,
or on the surface of the ground; and with the assistance of Professor
Matile, formerly of the University of Neufchatel, commenced in 1863

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25

the preparation of a series of moulds from which casts are made for
distribution and exchange. In carrying on this work we have been
favored with a large collection of specimens of Mexican art, principally
images and masks, by the American Philosophical Society, of Phila-
delphia, from which moulds have been taken. The prosecution of
this work has been temporarily suspended, but will be resumed as soon
as facilities and means for its prosecution can be provided. In this
connexion we would renew the request which we have made in pre-
vious reports, that descriptions of all mounds or aboriginal earthworks
which may be discovered may be sent to the Institution for the pur-
pose of furnishing the materials for a work at some future time on the
distribution and migration of the ancient inhabitants of this continent.
In order to preserve and render generally accessible the information
which may be obtained in this way, it will be published in the ap-
pendix to the next succeeding annual report after its reception.

Meteorology.—It has been mentioned in previous reports that the
second volume of the results of meteorological observations made under
the direction of the Smithsonian Institution and the Patent Office, from
the year 1854 to 1859, was in press, and that its completion was de-
layed by the unusual amount of printing required by the necessities
of the public service to be executed at the Government Printing
Office. It was thought best, therefore, to issue the portion already
printed, without waiting longer for the other material which it had
been intended to embrace in the volume. This portion, forming a
quarto volume of more than five hundred pages, was consequently
bound and distributed during the past year. It is divided into two
parts, each occupying about half the volume. The first relates to
the periodical phenomena of plants and animals from 1851 to 1859,
inclusive, embracing observations upon the foliation of eighty-seven
species, the blossoming of ninety-two, the ripening :of fruit of ten,
and the defoliation of eighteen species of plants, and upon the first
appearance of sixteen species of birds, one of reptiles, three of fishes,
and two of insects. These results have a direct application to me-
teorological science, by indicating the progress of the seasons in dif-
ferent localities, and their relative variability in different years. To
these have been added several tables of the opening and closing of
lakes, rivers, canals, and harbors, collected from various sources,
and tending to illustrate the same leading features of climate as the
records of organic phenomena. The materials were furnished chiefly
by the regular Smithsonian observers, and were arranged and pre-

pared for publication by Dr. Franklin B. Hough, of Albany, N. Y.

26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The latter half of the volume is occupied with materials for the
critical study of three storms in 1859, one of which occurred in March
and the other two in September, collected from the records of the In-
stitution, and prepared for publication by Professor J. H. Coffin, of
Lafayette College, Easton, Pennsylvania. One of the important ob-
jects aimed at in establishing the meteorological observations of the
Smithsonian Institution was the collection of data for the critical ex-
amination of the development and progress of the extended commo-
tions of the atmosphere which occur during the autumn, winter, and
spring, over the middle or temperate portions of North America. It
is well known that two hypotheses as to the direction and progress
of the wind in these storms have been advocated with an exhibition
of feeling unusual in the discussion of a problem of a purely scien-
tific character, and which, with sufficient available data, is readily
susceptible of a definite solution. According to one hypothesis the
motion of the air in these storms is gyratory; according to the other it
is in right lines toward a central point, or toward an irregular elon-
gated middle space. It is hoped that the data here given will be
considered of importance in settling, at least approximately, these
questions as to the general pheromena of American storms.

These two quarto volumes of meteorological results for the six
years 1854 to 1859 inclusive, embracing nearly two thousand pages,
together with a volume covering very nearly the same period of time
published by the War Department, probably form an unsurpassed
body of materials for the investigation of meteorological phenomena
over so wide an extent of country. The tables of the War Depart-
ment embrace nearly two hundred quarto pages of reductions for five
years, 1855 to 1859, inclusive, and form an appendix to the ‘‘statis-
tical report on the sickness and mortality in the army of the United
States,’’? published in 1860, compiled by Assistant Surgeon R. H.
Coolidge, under the direction of Dr. Lawson, Surgeon General United
States army. The original records, both in the Smithsonian Institu-
tion and War Department, from which the results contained in these
three volumes were deduced, are open to the examination of persons
who wish to make investigations more minute, or of a more extended
nature than can be embraced in general tables.

It is regretted that we have not the means at present of continuing
the reduction of all the records as received from the observers, and
of publishing the results. This want, however, is supplied to a
limited extent by the publication of the reductions of temperature and

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27

rain in the monthly report on the state of the crops and the weather,
issued by the Agricultural Department, between which and this In-
stitution the relations mentioned in the last report have been main-
tained through the past year. To save postage, the blank forms
have been sent out and the registers returned through the frank of
the office of the Commissioner of Agriculture. The monthly bulletin
above referred to, which is printed at the expense of the same de-
partment, continues to be received by the public with much favor ;
and, by means of its extensive distribution, presents the meteorolo-
gical tables to a much larger circle of readers than is comprised in
the list of our observers, awakening, to a corresponding extent, an
interest in the subject of meteorology. This branch of science is
receiving increased attention from year to year, and a larger number
of individuals are devoting time and talent to efforts for unfolding
the laws which control the formation and movement of vapor, winds,
and change of temperature in all parts of the world. Meteorology
has ceased to be a mere record of isolated facts. The special
characteristic of modern efforts in this line consists in extended co-
operation, and in determining the simultaneous condition of the
atmosphere over extended regions of country. It is only by this
means that the laws which govern the occurrence, motion, direction,
and propagation of the disturbances of the atmosphere can be ascer-
tained. By comparisons of this kind isolated observations of other-
‘wise little value become important, and afford an ample field in the
cultivation of which any person who will take the trouble to record
the direction of the wind, the beginning and ending of rain, snow,
hail, the time of blossoming of trees, appearance of birds, insects,
&c., may render valuable service.

The daily record of meteorological observations telegraphed to the
Imperial Observatory at Paris, and published in a lithographed sheet,
continues to increase in interest and importance under the active
and enlightened superintendence of M. Le Verrier, director of the
observatory. From being the medium simply for the circulation of
telegraphic notices of the weather, it has become, in addition, a
repository of valuable meteorological summaries, communications,
criticisms, and announcements. The outline chart of Europe, with
the curves of equal barometric pressure and direction of the wind at
the different stations on the day of publication, and also a table of
the estimated weather for the following day, continue to be inserted
inevery number. The title of the publication is now ‘‘ International
Bulletin of the Imperial Observatory of Paris.’’ It occupies more than

28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

twelve hundred folio pages yearly, at a subscription price of thirty-six
francs.

The Institution has also received a similar meteorological bulletin
from the Royal Observatory at Palermo. In the first number of this,
a plan is proposed for distributing simultaneous meteorological obser-
vations similar to that which was adopted previous to the war by the
Smithsonian Institution, viz: that of furnishing the most important
telegraphic stations with meteorological instruments, and instructing
the principal telegraphist, or one of his assistants, in the process of
making observations. A thoroughly organized system of this kind
over the whole United States, with a series of directions for predict-
ing the weather at a given place from a knowledge of the condition
of the atmosphere at distant points, would be of vast importance to
the maritime and agricultural interests, particularly along the Atlan-
tic sea-board. It is hoped that as soon as order is restored and peace
fully re-established throughout the southern portion of the United
States, the system will be revived under still more favorable auspices.

An important addition to the means at the command of the Insti-
tution for this purpose has been furnished by the liberal action of
the North American Telegraphic Association, in giving the free use
of all its lines for the scientific objects of the Institution. The asso-
ciation embraces the Western Union, the American, the Montreal,
the Southwestern, and the Illinois and Mississippi Telegraph Com-
panies, covering the entire United States and Canada, including the
overland line to San Francisco, which, by its charter, is required to
transmit without charge scientific despatches for the Institution.
The telegraph companies on the Pacific coast have also liberally
granted the same privileges.

I am happy to state in this connexion that efforts have been made
to revive and complete the meteorological observations which were
collected by the Naval or National Observatory. The records from
the log-books of the commercial and naval marine collected under
the direction of the former superintendent, though imperfectly, and
in many cases erroneously interpreted, were valuable contributions
to the materials from which the true theory of the general motions
of the atmosphere are to be deduced.

The lake system of meteorology is still kept up under the new
superintendent, Col. Raynolds, though the Institution has not re-
ceived the copies of the registers for the past year.

The State Department has furnished the Institution with several
meteorological contributions forwarded to it by consuls in foreign

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29

countries. Among them are observations made at Constantinople
for the year ending September, 1863; daily telegraphic reports of
the weather in Europe, communicated to the Central Physical Ob-
servatory at St. Petersburg, Russia, for the year ending September,
1864, translated and compiled by Mr. Edwin Phelps, United States
consul; meteorological review for the year 1864, from observations
at the Leprosy hospital of Lungeguard in the city of Bergen, Norway,
reduced by O. H. Dreutzer, United States consul; monthly tables
for a part of the year 1864, from the consul at Turk’s Island, West
Indies. If all the American consuls in foreign countries would
collect and send to the State Department local publications contain-
ing meteorological tables, many valuable additions might be furnished.

The Navy Department, as heretofore, has transmitted to the Insti-
tution monthly reports kept at the naval hospitals at Chelsea, New
York, and Philadelphia.

A circular and a chart of stars prepared by the Connecticut
Academy of Arts and Sciences was published by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, and distributed to its observers for the purpose of obtaining
records of the meteors that might appear on the night of November
13-14, 1864, but the general cloudiness of the night prevented the
attainment of any valuable results.

The three rooms in which the meteorological records were kept
were destroyed by the fire on the 24th of January, 1865. Owing to
the great rapidity with which the fire progressed much valuable ma-
terial was lost, but fortunately the larger portion of the contents of
the rooms were saved. Among the articles lost were the principal
instruments used at the Institution for meteorological observations,
including the self-registering apparatus for recording the direction
and velocity of the wind, constructed by Dr. Smallwood, of Montreal,
and partially described in the Smithsonian reports for 1856 and 1860.
It had been in operation since 1858. All the records kept by it were
lost. As soon as a minute investigation can be made as to the miss-
ing sheets of the general records, a list of deficiencies will be
published, and it is hoped that a portion at least of these may be
restored by copies of the duplicates retained by the observers.

Laboratory—During the past year the laboratory has been in
charge of Dr. Charles M. Wetherill. The experiments mentioned in
the last report on materials for light-house illumination have been
continued, and a series of examinations has been made of different
substances submitted for that purpose by the government. The most

30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

extended series of experiments, however, has been that which relates
to the condition of the air, and the mode of ventilation of the United
States Capitol. This subject was referred by Mr. Thomas U. Walter,

the architect of the Capitol, to the Secretary of this Institution.

The plan of the investigation having been determined, the experi-
ments have principally been made by Dr, Wetherill. The result of
this investigation, it is believed, will not only throw additional light
on the points for which it was instituted, but also form an interesting
addition to the subject of ventilation. The work in the laboratory,

also by Dr. Wetherill, comprised various researches upon subjects of
chemical science. Of these, three, viz.: ‘‘On the nature of the so-

called ammonium amalgam;’’ “On the crystallization of sulphur;’’ and
‘¢QOn the crystalline nature of glass,’’ will be published shortly in one

of the scientific journals of the country. The means for carrying on
physical research at the Institution have been materially diminished,

on account of the destruction by fire of the very valuable collection
of physical apparatus. Fortunately the conflagration did not extend
to the laboratory, and consequently the chemical apparatus was pre-
served.

Collections of specimens of natural history, &c.—The work of making
collections of specimens of natural history has been prosecuted as in
previous years. A very large collection of mammals, birds, eggs,
&c., made in the northern part of British America in 1863, princi-
pally by the officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company, has arrived at
Fort Garry, and is expected soon to be received in Washington.
Collections have also been received from Labrador, Puget’s sound,
and from various parts of the United States, Central America,
Mexico, and the West Indies, a detailed account of which is given in
the annexed report of Professor Baird. Advantage has been taken
of every exploring expedition which has been sent out by govern-
ment, and in many cases of the assistance offered by officers of the
army, particularly of the medical department, for adding new mate-
rials or duplicate specimens to the collections. The great object, as
has been frequently stated before, of this work, is to obtain the ma-
terials for an extended knowledge of the natural history of this con-
tinent, and to furnish ‘illustrations of type specimens to museums,
colleges, and other educational establishments.

The whole number of specimens catalogued during the last twelve
years is upwards of 100,000, and including duplicates, the whole
number collected will amount to five times that amount.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 31

The distribution of duplicates has been continued as rapidly as the
identification and labelling could be accomplished. In this distribu-
-tion regard has been had to the relative geographical positions of the
establishments to which the first sets of specimens have been sent as
well as to their importance as influential centres of higher education.
According to the statement of Professor Baird, it will be seen that
already upwards of 16,000 specimens have been distributed during
the year, and efforts will be made during the season to increase this
number. The importance of this branch of operations depends more
upon what the Institution is enabled to distribute than on what it
accumulates for permanent preservation.

Museum.—The type specimens of the museum have been gradually
increased during the past year, not only from the collections made
by the Institution, but also from donations received from abroad, par-
ticularly as regards rare birds, eggs, fossils, andanimals. The Euro-
pean specimens of ornithology were requested for the purpose of
enabling Professor Baird by comparison to prosecute his work on
American birds.

Previous to the fire the large room partly occupied by the Stanley
collection of Indian portraits had been fitted up with about two hun-
dred feet of cases around the walls, to receive the ethnological speci-
mens in possession of the Institution. While engaged in re-arranging
the pictures above these cases, the workmen, with a view to their own
comfort, unfortunately placed the pipe of a stove in a ventilating flue
which opened under the roof, and thus caused the conflagration which
destroyed the upper part of the main building. Fortunately none
of the ethnological articles had been placed in this room, and conse-
quently these specimens, with those of the museum and of the general
collections, have been preserved.

Exchanges. —The system of international literary and scientific ex-
changes has been continued during the past year with unabated
energy, and on the part of the Institution exclusively, several hun-
dred sets of its publications, each embracing 1,782 pages, have been
sent to foreign institutions.

According to the tabular statement given by Professor Baird it ap-
pears that, during the year 1864, there have been despatched to
foreign countries 1,011 packages, each containing a number of articles,
enclosed in sixty-three boxes, measuring 546 cubic feet and weighing
20,500 pounds. The number of packages received in return for
societies and individuals in this country was 2,482 (nearly twice as
many as in 1863) exclusive of those for the Smithsonian library.

32 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Inbrary.—The library has continued to increase, principally by
the addition of all the current transactions of societies and of scientific
journals. By exchanges there have been received 645 octavo, 153.
quarto, and 25 folio volumes, 2,754 pamphlets and parts of volumes,
and 109 maps and charts—total 3,686. In the appendix to this report
will be found a list of the foreign societies and individuals which have
made donations to the library of the Institution, with the number of
works received from 1860 to 1864.

Lectures. —Up to the occurrence of the fire no lectures had been
given this season; indeed, on account of the increased expenditures
incident to the advance of prices, it was thought advisable to diminish
the number of lectures, since this part of the operations of the estab-
lishment has not been considered of so much importance as other sec-
tions of the general plan of organization. It can scarcely be doubted
that the publication in the late annual reports of synopses of the
lectures has been of more service in the diffusion of knowledge than
their delivery in the hall of the Institution, and that their place may,
with equal advantage, be supplied by occasional and popular exposi-
tions of certain subjects in a similar form.

The foregoing is the substance of what was intended for presenta-
tion to the Board of Regents as an exposition of the staté of the In-
stitution at the close of 1864, and of what had been,accomplished
during that year in the way of carrying out the programme of organi-
zation. On account of the burning of the original draft of the report,
and of a large portion of the records of the establishment, the state-
ments are not as full in some particulars as they would have been
had they been prepared under more favorable circumstances, but the
deficiencies in this respect can be made up in the report for next
year.

The danger from fire at the Institution has been to me, from the
commencement of the occupancy of the building, a source of constant
and anxious solicitude. The combustible character of the two wings,
of the two connecting ranges, and of the interior of the towers,
together with the plan of heating originally adopted, rendered an
accident by fire far from improbable, and led me to enforce a system
of vigilance, the strict observance of which I hoped would insure
safety. The flame, however, was communicated at a point where
danger was least suspected, and through one of those contingencies
against which all circumspection is unavailing,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33

But, although greatly to be regretted on account of the losses in-
curred, the accident is not without compensation in considerations of
a different nature ; thus, it has served to call forth the expression of
a large amount of kind feeling in regard to the Institution, to direct
the attention of Congress to the character and importance of its opera-
tions, and has thus, perhaps, furnished the opportunity of remedying
some of the defects in the original law of its organization, which were
the result of the novelty of the enterprise or the desire of reconciling
inconsistent propositions. Immediately after the fire, as is well
known to the Board, a committee of the two houses of Congress was
appointed to inquire into its origin, the loss sustained, the means
necessary to repair the building, and to collect such facts in connex-
ion with the whole subject as might be of public interest. This
committee, after adopting the report of the special committee of the
Board* as to the origin of the fire, called upon the Secretary for a
detailed statement of the origin and objects of the Institution and of
its operations from the beginning, in connexion with the policy of
the Regents and his own superintendence of its affairs.

In pursuance of this request I submitted to the committee a gen-
eral review of the more prominent facts connected with the adoption
of the plan of organization, and of what has been since accomplished
towards realizing the views of the founder and the wishes of the
friends of the Institution. Although this review may give facts
familiar to some of the members of the Board and to those who
have directed any special attention to the history of the estab-
lishment, it may weil be inferred from occasional remarks, not only
in the journals of the day, but on the floor of Congress, that there
is no little need of the repetition of statements tending to correct
misconceptions which arise, no doubt, much oftener from inattention
than from prejudice. It is for this reason, and to keep before the
public mind distinct ideas of the character and operations of the In-
stitution, that I append, as the concluding portion of this report, the
statement, somewhat expanded in the introduction, which I had the
honor of laying before the Joint Committee of Congress.

SKETCH OF THE ORGANIZATION AND OPERATION OF THE INSTITUTION.

The founder of this Institution, James Smithson, was a graduate of
the University of Oxford, devoted during a long life to the advance-
ment of science, and the author of a number of original contributions
to geology, chemistry, mineralogy, &c. He was well acquainted with

* See proceedings of the Board.

358

34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

original research in the various branches of knowledge, and had doubt-
less a proper appreciation of the good which might be effected by
founding an institution especially adapted to advance this object.
He accordingly intrusted his property to the United States to found
an establishment ‘‘ under the name of the Smithsonian Institution for the
increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.’’ He evidently did not
intend by these precise terms to found a library or a mere museum
for the diffusion of popular information to a limited community, but
a cosmopolitan establishment. to increase the swm of human knowledge
and to diffuse this to every part of the civilized world. No other
interpretation of the will is either in accordance with the terms em-
ployed or with the character and habits of the founder. The in-
crease of human knowledge, by which we must understand additions
to its sum, would be of but little value without its diffusion, and to
limit the latter to one city, or even to one country, would be an in-
vidious restriction of the term men. These views, so evident to
minds especially devoted to science, were not at once apparent to
those whose studies and pursuits had been chiefly confined to litera-
ture or public affairs. The first scheme which was presented in re-
gard to the character of the future institution proposed that it should
assume the form of a university, but this idea was shown to be er-
roneous by the Hon. J. Q. Adams, who pointed out the fact that the
object of a university was not to increase knowledge, but to diffuse
that which already exists. The next proposition, which had many
advocates, was that of a large library or museum; but these objects
are in a measure local in their influence and tend, like the former, to
promote rather the diffusion than the increase of knowledge.

From this diversity of opinion as to the character of the proposed
Institution, or from whatever other causes, the bequest was suffered
to remain inoperative for eight years. It was not until 1846 that
Congress passed the act of organization under which the Institution
has since continued in operation.

This act directs that provision be made for a library, museum, and
gallery of art, in a suitable building of plain and durable materials, and
after these and some other general indications of the views of the
legislature, leaves it discretionary with the Board of Regents to
adopt such further measures for promoting the common purpose as
might seem, in their judgment, best to comport with the terms of the
donation.

I may be permitted to state, without giving undue prominence to
my own part in the organization, that immediately after the passage

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35

of this act Iwas requested by one of the Regents to prepare a sketch
of such an institution as I deemed that of Smithson ought to be, with
reference at once to the requirements of Congress, and the brief,
though comprehensive, phrases of the will. After devoting careful
attention to the expressions of the bequest, and being acquainted
with the character of the founder, I could not entertain the slightest
doubt that it was the intention of the latter to establish a cosmopel-
itan institution, which should be alike a monument of his own
fervent love of science, an efficient instrumentality for promoting
original researches and rendering a knowledge of their results
accessible to inquiring minds in every part and age of the world.
I accordingly advised the adoption of the plan set forth in the first
section of the programme presented to the board in my report for
1847,* a plan which is principally designed to increase knowledge
by instituting researches and assisting in various ways men of talents
and acquirements to make original investigations in all departments
of scientific inquiry, as well as to diffuse the knowledge thus obtained
by presenting, free of cost, to all the principal libraries and public
institutions of the world copies of a series of volumes containing the
results of the investigations instituted.

Previous to the presentation of these views, one of the Regents
had reported in favor of making immediate provision for a library, a
museum, a gallery of art, and other local objects, in connexion with
a system of lectures to be delivered in different parts of the country;
while another Regent had presented an eloquent appeal in favor of a
great library composed of books in all languages and on all subjects.

In reviewing these and other plans of organization which had been
previously advocated, it will scarcely be denied by an unprejudiced
mind that, for the most part, they were such as to exert a merely local
influence, and which, if they embraced means for the diffusion of
popular knowldge, neglected the first and essential condition of the
bequest, viz.: the increase of knowledge—in other words, the advance-
ment of science or the discovery and promulgation of new truths.
On the other hand, the plan of organization presented in the first
section of the report for 1847 is that of a living, active, progressive
system, limited in its operations only by the amount of the income;
calculated to affect the condition of man wherever literature and sci-
ence are cultivated, while it tends in this country to give an impulse to
original thought, which, amidst the strife of politics and the inordi-

nate pursuit of wealth, is, of all things, most desirable.

* See programme of organization, page 8 of this report.

36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

These views, which have commanded the approval of unprejudiced
and reflecting persons generally, and especially of men of science, to
which class Smithson belonged, were fully shared from the first by
Professor Bache, General Totten, Gideon Hawley, esq., and in whole
or in part by other members of the board, and I was elected the
secretary or principal executive officer, to develop and carry into
practice, as I supposed, under the direction of the board, the plan I
had suggested.

The appointment was accepted with much and not causeless solici-
tude as to the result. I soon found that although a number of the
members of the board were in favor of the promotion of original
researches, or of what has since, by way of discrimination, been
called the active operations, neither a majority of the Regents nor
perhaps the community in general was prepared to favor a plan of
organization which should exclude the material representation of the
Institution in the form of an extensive architectural structure calcu-
lated to arrest the eye and embellish the national capital.

It was in vain tourge the fact that alarge and expensive building was
not only unnecessary to the realization of the purpose of Smithson, but
that it would tend to defeat that object by absorbing the income, con-
trolling the future policy of the Institution, and confining its influence
principally to a single locality; that it was not the estimated first cost
of the edifice which should alone be considered, but also the expense
of keeping it in repair and the maintenance of the corps of assistants
and employés which would be required in an establishment of this
kind; that the increase of the collections of a miscellaneous library and
public museum would, in time, require additional space; and that,
finally, all the revenue of the bequest would be absorbed in a statical
establishment, or in attempting to do that which can only be properly
accomplished, as in other countries, by means of the government.
Unfortunately the building committee had settled upon a design for
the building in the Lombard style, and Congress had presented to the
Institution the museum of the exploring expedition, then at the Patent
Office, and directed that provision should be made on a liberal scale for
its accommodation, neglecting, at the same time, to fill the blank in
the act of organization, by which the cost of the building was to have
been limited. It was this provision of the law which furnished a
fulcrum for the influence exerted by the citizens of Washington, and
persons pecuniarily interested, directly or indirectly, in contracts or
otherwise, in favor of the erection of the present structuse. Thus

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37

re-enforced, the fascination of its architectural display as presented
on paper proved too strong to be resisted.

The adoption of this extensive and costly building was considered
so inauspicious a beginning that I had resolved to resign the office of
director, and make no further attempt to introduce the plan witha
view to the success of which I had accepted the position, when a
temporary compromise was proposed by which the several plans
might be brought to the test of experience, and an opportunity ap-
parently given for any modifications which might be found advisable.

In order to meet the large expenditure on the building, to provide
for the support of the establishment necessarily connected with it,
and to leave the greater part of the interest of the original bequest
free to be applied to its more legitimate objects, it was resolved to
create an extra fund, while gradually developing the plans of organi-
zation, and for this purpose the following course was adopted:

1. The building to be erected in parts, and its different portions
gradually brought into requisition, its completion being thus delayed
for a number of years.

2. The sum appropriated to the building, furniture, and grounds,
viz., $250,000, being mainly the interest which had accrued previous
to the organization, to be invested in United States treasury stock,
bearing interest.

3. The plan of organization to be gradually developed, and, instead
of expending upon it from the first the whole interest of the original
bequest, a part of this to be also invested in treasury bonds.

4, The remainder of the income to be divided between the active
operations on the one hand and the library and museum on the other.
The latter to be restricted principally to scientific books and to
type specimens.

This compromise was adopted, and has been so successfully and
steadily carried out financially, that at the commencement of the
war, after paying for the building, accumulating a very valuable
library, establishing and supporting a large museum, and carry-
ing on all the active operations of the establishment, an extra fund
had been created amounting to $140,000. In order to secure this
from the contingencies of any future expenditure on buildings or
loss from hazardous investment, a petition was preferred to Con-
gress to take it from the care of the Regents and deposit it with
the original principal in the treasury of the United States, sub-
ject to the same restriction, viz., that the interest alone could be
expended. This petition not having been acted upon, the Regents

38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

deemed it expedient to invest the money in such State stocks as were
then considered most eligible, and accordingly there were invested
In— ‘

Indiana 5 per cent. stocks +eee- eee eee cece ee weneee $75,000

Virginia Go se BRL de ae gh ba ee MN 53,509
Tennessee He Bess as a eae STa,0 ile, di Ale RVeNee iene ies 12,000
Georgia Pe SL OO ai wig hie he tap) MGS E aI aE Le 500
Washington), 67 "") <° Cid sNARORCAL CRs arse ais Thales ANE) ol ples 100

Amounting HID AL OG ei snes hota hes hae varleked tekerone ter eheies doco 141,100

oo“ ___

This scheme has afforded an ample opportunity to compare the
relative advantages of the two principal plans of organization and to
verify the predictions which were originally made in regard to the
building. Though but a portion of the income has been devoted to
the active operations, they have produced results in the way of in-
creasing and diffusing knowledge abundantly sufficient to justify the
anticipations which were entertained in regard to them, and to con-
vince the most skeptical of their primary importance. As to the
building, it is now abundantly proved that a structure of one-fifth of
the cost would have been sufficient for the wants of the Institution,
and that two grave errors were committed in the adoption of the pres.
ent one: first, the plan was but little adapted to the uses to which the
edifice was to be applied ; second, the style of architecture required a
far greater expenditure than the amount to which the cost of the
building was limited. For the purpose of architectural effect the
interior was very inconveniently divided; the buttresses, turrets, and
towers, while they add very little to the accommodation of the build-
ing, greatly increased the cost. To have constructed the building
in a substantial and durable manner, in strict conformity with the
Lombard style of architecture which was adopted, would have re-
quired an expenditure of at least double the amount of the sum
appropriated for the purpose. It was, therefore, necessary, in order
that the exterior might be constructed in freestone, that the interior
should be finished in wood and stucco, and that thus recourse
should be had to the presentation of a falsehood to the eye in the
very inauguration of an enterprise for the advancement of truth.
The two wings and the two connecting ranges were completed in
this manner. The main building, which is 200 feet long and 50 wide,
embellished with six towers, was also in process of completion, the
framing of the interior having been finished, when the underpinning
gave way and the whole of the woodwork fell to the ground. After
the occurrence of this accident a commission of architects, appointed

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39
to examine the building, reported that the exterior walls were well
built, both in regard to construction and materials, but that the plan
of finishing the interior in wood and stucco was improper for an edifice
intended to contain valuable articles; it was therefore recommended
that fire-proof materials should be employed for the portions of the
work which remained to be constructed. In conformity with this
recommendation the interior of the main building was completed in
iron, stone, and brick, with the exception of the roof, which, being
covered with slate and not supposed to be exposed to danger from
fire, was suffered to remain. It was this change, in the mode of con-
structing a portion of the edifice, which, during the late fire, saved
the contents of the whole from destruction. It, however, increased
the cost of the building to upwards of $300,000, leaving the remain-
ing parts of the interior of the structure in perishable materials.

It was hoped that, through the adoption of the compromise propo-
sitions, the importance of the active operations would speedily
become apparent, and that the plan of erecting an expensive
building would be abandoned before more than one of the wings
had been completed; but, though the construction of the edifice
was, in accordance with the agreement, extended over a number of
years, yet in anticipation of such an interference with its ultimate
completion, so large a portion of the lower story of the whole struc-
ture was commenced in the first two years that it was apparent no
successful opposition could be made to its further progress. Nor
can Congress be absolved of the charge of having indirectly con-
tributed to encumber the bequest with the cost and maintenance of
so extensive a building and so numerous a retinue: with more
justice, therefore, may it be invoked to relieve the Institution,.in
due time, from the burden imposed upon it. It should, however, be
remembered, on the other hand, that by repeated enactments Con-
gress has sanctioned the prominence which has been given to the
active operations, and acquiesced in the adoption of the special
character which has been impressed on the library and museum. It
has relieved the Institution from the care of the grounds, also of
the copyright books which were intended to swell the number of
volumes, and, so far from still considering the museum of the ex-
ploring expedition a desirable gift, it has granted for several years
past four thousand dollars annually to assist in bearing the expenses
of preserving and exhibiting the specimens.

It is to be regretted that Congress directed that provision should be
made on a large scale for a library and museum, since each tends to
cripple the other, and the whole to diminish the efficiency of the active

40 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

operations. A conscientious endeavor, however, has been made to
harmonize the whole scheme, by establishing a special library, con-
sisting of the transactions of learned societies and systematic works on
all branches of science, together with a limited museum of type speci-
mens, principally of the products of the American continent. And,
on the whole, it may be pronounced that, notwithstanding the inaus-
picious circumstances which attended the commencement of the In-
stitution, as before stated, and the difficulties with which it has’ had
to contend from time to time, the results it has produced have been
such as to commend it to the public generally throughout our own
country, and to make it favorably known to the cultivators of science
wherever found. It has identified itself with the history of almost
every branch of knowledge which receives attention at the present
day, and its transactions and proceedings are constantly referred to
as authoritative on all subjects to which they pertain. With no desire
to exaggerate its importance or advantages, the fact may be satisfac-
torily cited that the recognition of its services in behalf of science
exists in the contemporary works of all languages, that its publications
are found wherever letters are cultivated, and its specimens in all
the principal museums of the world. If it was the desire of the
founder to perpetuate the memory of his liberality, that desire has
been thus fully gratified; nor is the memorial of his enlightened and
comprehensive benevolence limited as to place or time, since it is
everywhere renewed with the yearly dissemination of the publica-
tions which bear his name.

The following brief sketch of the labors of the Institution up to the
present time will not only serve to show what it has done, but also
to illustrate the capability of the plan of active operations for pro-
ducing important results in the way of increasing and diffusing know-
ledge among men.

ACTIVE OPERATIONS.

Publications.—The Smithsonian Institution has established three
classes of publications, in which are contained the articles hereafter
to be mentioned. These are as follows:

1. A quarto series, entitled ‘‘Smithsonian Contributions to Know-
ledge,’’ issued in volumes, each embracing one or more separate
articles. Of these the fourteenth is nearly through the press.

2. An octavo series, entitled ‘‘Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec-
tions,’’ which in the aggregate make six large volumes.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Al

3. Another octavo series, consisting of the annual reports of the
Institution to Congress, called ‘‘ Smithsonian Reports,’’ of which
eleven volumes have been published.

The Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge include memoirs em-
bracing the records of extended original investigations and researches
resulting in what are believed to be new truths, and constituting
positive additions to the sum of human knowledge.

The series of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections contains reports
on the present state of our knowledge of particular branches of
science ; instructions for collecting and digesting facts and materials
for research ; lists and synopses of species of the organic and inor-
ganic world ; museum catalogues ; reports of explorations ; aids to
bibliographical investigations, &c,; generally prepared at the express
request of the Institution, and at its expense.

The Annual Reports include the official reports of the Secretary to
the Board of Regents of the operations and condition of the Institu-
tion ; the reports of committees of the board ; abstracts of lectures
delivered before the Institution; extracts from correspondence; origi-
nal or translated articles relating to the history and progress of
science, &c.

The following rules have been observed in the distribution of the
first and second series:

1. They are presented to all learned societies of the first class
which publish transactions, and give copies of these, in exchange,
to the Institution.

2. To all foreign libraries of the first class, provided they give in
exchange their catalogues and other publications, or an equivalent,
from their duplicate volumes.

3. To all the colleges in actual operation in this country, provided
they furnish, in return, meteorological observations, catalogues of
their libraries and of their students, and all other publications issued
by them relative to their organization and history.

4. To all States and Territories, provided they give, in return,
copies of all documents published under their authority.

5. To all incorporated public libraries in this country, not included
in any of the foregoing classes, now containing 10,000 volumes; and
to smaller libraries, where a whole State or large district would be
otherwise unsupplied.

Institutions devoted exclusively to the promotion of particular
branches of knowledge receive such articles published by the Insti-
tution as relate to their objects. Portions of the series are also given

42 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY

to institutions of lesser grade not entitled, under the above rules, to
the full series, and also to the meteorclogical correspondents of the
Institution.

The reports are of a more popular character, and are presented—

1. To all the meteorological observers and other collaborators of the
Institution.

2. To donors to its library or museum.

3. To colleges and other educational establishments.

4. To public libraries and literary and scientific societies.

5. To teachers or individuals who are engaged in special studies,
and who make direct application for them.

Besides the works which have been published entirely at the ex-
pense of the Institution, aid has been furnished by subscription for
copies to be distributed to foreign libraries of a number of works
which fall within the class adopted by the programme. The princi-
pal works of this kind for which subscriptions have been made are as
follows : Agassiz’s Contributions to Natural History, Gould’s Astro-
nemical Journal, Shea’s American Linguistics, Runkle’s Mathematical
Monthly, Deane’s Fossil Footprints, Tuomey & Holmes’s Fossils of
South Carolina, Peirce’s Analytic Mechanics.

Meteorology.—The investigation of all questions relative to meteor-
ology has been an object to which the Institution has devoted special at-
tention, and one of its first efforts was to organize a voluntary system of
observation, which should extend as widely as possible over the whole
of the North American continent. It induced a skilful artisan, under
its direction, to commence the manufacture of carefully prepared and
accurately graduated instruments, now generally known as the Smith-
sonian standards. It prepared and furnished a series of instructions
for the use of the instruments and the observations of meteorological
phenomena ; also three series of blank forms as registers.

It next organized a body of intelligent observers, and in a compar-
atively short time brought the system into practical operation ; each
year the number of observers increased, and where one ceased his
connexion with the enterprise, several came forward to supply his
place. By an arrangement with the Surgeon General of the army,
the system of observations at the United States military posts in dif-
ferent parts of the country, and also that which had previously been
established by the State of New York, were remodelled so as to har-
monize with that of the Institution. Gentlemen interested in science,
residing in the British provinces, and at nearly all the posts of the Hud-
son’s Bay Company, also in Mexico, Central America, the West In-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43

dies, and some places in South America, &c., joined in the enterprise;
and, with few exceptions, at the beginning of the war every dis-
trict of considerable size had in it at least one if not more observers.
All these contribute their services without compensation, their only
reward being the satisfaction of co-operating with each other and
the Institution in the effort to supply data and materials for investi-
gation. Any returns, indeed, which the Institution has in its power
to make are gladly rendered in a hearty acknowledgment of assist-
ance, and in copies of all the Smithsonian publications likely to be
of interest.

Besides the materials obtained directly from the observers of the
Institution, a large amount of other matter relative to the meteor-
ology of North America has been accumulated—such as copies of all
the known series of records for long periods which could be obtained;
series which have been compiled during explorations and surveys for
the government, those which have been the result of local associa-
tions, and of the system of observations established in connexion with
the survey of the great lakes, as well as of the common school system
of Canada, and many thousand notices of the weather at different
times and places, collected from newspapers and periodicals.

No other part of the world has offered such facilities for the col-
lection of meteorological data, the system extending over so large
a portion of the earth’s surface; the observers, with few exceptions,
all speaking the same’ language, and many of them being furnished
with full sets of compared standard instruments.

It is to be regretted that this system has been partially interrupted
during the war, and that the portion of the income of the Smithsonian
fund, which could be devoted to the reduction and discussion of the
material collected, has not been adequate to the labor of deducing
from so large a body of data all the valuable truths which they are
capable of affording. It has had assistance, however, from the agri-
cultural department of the Patent Office, by which the results of five
years’ observations of all the elements and a series of i isailiaiiin
for long periods have been prepared for publication.

From all the observations made up to 1860, isothermal charts were
constructed, presenting much more accurately than had ever been
done before, the distribution of temperature over the continent of
North America; a series of rain. charts, and also a large map exhibit-
ing the regions of original forest, of arable prairie and of desert in
the United States, have also been prepared.

The Institution has fully established the fact, which was previously

44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

indicated in regard to storms, by the investigations of Mr. Espy and
others, in relation to the United States, namely, that all such meteoro-
logical phenomena, as variations in the pressure of the atmosphere,
sudden changes of temperature, either of unusually warm or cold
weather, thunder-storms, tornadoes, as well as storms of wind, rain,
&c., which occur within the temperate zones, travel from west to east.
The simultaneous system of observations established by the Institu-
tion furnished the means of placing this great law of meteorology in
prominent relief, and of first reducing it to practical utility.

As early as 1849 the Institution organized a system of telegraphic
despatches, by which information was received at Washington of the
condition of the weather at distant places in the southwest and north-
west, and from this, in accordance with the law before mentioned,
it was often enabled to predict, sometimes a day or two in advance,
the approach of any larger disturbances of the atmosphere. Subse-
quently the telegraphic despatches were daily exhibited at the
Institution on a map of the United States by means of a series of
movable cards of different colors, which indicated the meteorological
condition at various points, showing at a glance in what parts of the
country it might be clear or cloudy, raining or snowing; and by
arrows the existing direction of the wind. The returns were also
published in one of the evening papers. Unfortunately this enter-
prise was interrupted by the cessation of the observations in the
southwest, and by the constant use of the telegraph for the purposes
of the government.

The advantages possessed by the Smithsonian Institution for inves-
tigations of this kind will be evident, when it is recollected that a
large portion of its observers are stationed west of Washington, that
the phenomena approach it over a large extent of land, and can be
critically noted through every part of their passage eastward, while
the phenomena which are presented to the meteorologists of Hurope
traverse in reaching them a wide expanse of ocean, from which only
casual observations can be gleaned.

The publications of the Institution contain many memoirs which
have tended to advance the science of meteorology. Among these
may be mentioned the meteorological and physical tables prepared
at the expense of the Institution by Professor Guyot, and filling a
large octavo volume of the Miscellaneous Collections. No work extant
answers the same purpose with the one referred to, which has hence
become a general standard of reference, the constant demand for it

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45

as well in Europe as America having required the printing of several
successive editions.

The results of the reductions for five years previous to 1860 have
been published in two volumes of nearly 2,000 quarto pages, con-
taining a mass of materials of great value in determining the average
temperature, fall of rain, barometrical pressure, moisture, direction
of the wind, and time of various periodical phenomena relative to
plants, animals, &c.

In addition to these large and important volumes, other works
have been published by the Institution which have had a marked
influence on the progress of meteorology. Among these may be
mentioned the works of Professor Coffin, on the winds of the northern
hemisphere; of Mr. Chappelsmith, on a tornado in Illinois; of Professor
Loomis, on a great storm which pervaded both America and Europe;
the reduced observations for twenty-eight years of Professor Caswell,
at Providence, Rhode Island; of Dr. Smith, for twenty years in
Arkansas; of Dr. Kane and Captain McClintock, in the arctic seas;
on the heat and light of the sun at different points, by Mr. Meech;
on the secular period of the aurora, by Professor Olmsted; the
occurrence of auroras in the arctic regions, by Mr. P. Force, &c.

Besides these, a series of meteorological essays embodying many of
the results obtained from the investigations at the Institution has
been prepared by the Secretary, and been published in the agricul-
tural reports of the Patent Office.

Astronomy.—The Institution has advanced the science of astronomy
both by its publications and the assistance rendered to observers.
To facilitate astronomical observations, it prepared and published for
Six years an annual list of occultations of the principal stars by the
moon, and printed and distributed a series of tables for determining
the perturbations of the planetary motions, the object of which de-
termination is to facilitate the calculation of the places of the heavenly
bodies. These tables have accomplished the desired end, saving to
the practical astronomer an immense amount of tedious and monoto-
nous labor.

The name of the Institution has been favorably connected with the
history of the interesting discovery of the planet Neptune. Froma
few of the first observations which had been made on this planet Mr.
Sears C. Walker calculated its approximate orbit, and by this means
tracing its path through its whole revolution of 166 years he was en-
abled to carry it backward until it fell among a cluster of stars, ace
curately mapped by Lalande, towards the close of the last century.

46 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

After minute inspection he was led to conclude that one of the stars
which had been observed by Lalande in 1795 was the planet Nep-
tune. He was thus supplied with the amount of its motion for up-
wards of fifty years, from which he deduced a much more perfect
orbit, and was enabled to construct an ephemeris giving the place of
the planet for several years in succession. These investigations, so
interesting to astronomy and honorable to this country, were prose-
cuted and published at the expense of the Institution, the name of
which will be further connected with the planet Neptune by the pub-
lication, now in press, of a new discussion of all the observations which
have been made on this body for the last fifteen years. This work,
which is by Professor Newcomb, of the United States navy, will
furnish not only the means of determining the exact position of Nep-
tune for years to come, but also the data for ascertaining whether it
is affected by other bodies than those now known to astronomers.

To render more generally accessible to practical astronomers in
this country the theory of the motion of the heavenly bodies hy the
celebrated Gauss, the Institution shared the expense of publishing a
translation of this treatise by Admiral C. H. Davis, U. S. N., from
the Latin. It furnishes a complete system of formulas for computing
the movements of a body in any of the curves belonging to the class
of conic sections, and a general method of determining the orbit of a
planet or a comet from three observations, as seen from the earth.

For a number of years aid was afforded to the publicatian of Gould’s
American Astronomical Journal, which rendered good service to the
science by making promptly known to foreign observers the results of
the labors of their contemporaries in America. It has also had re-
duced by Mr. Charles A. Schott, and published at its own expense,
the astronomical observations made by Dr. Kane in the arctic regions,
and has now in hand those which were made in the same regions by
Dr. Hayes.

Congress having authorized in 1849 an astronomical expedition
under Lieutenant Gilliss to the southern hemisphere for the purpose
of determining the parallax of the planets, and consequently their
distance from the sun, by observations on Venus and Mars, accident-
ally failed to make the appropriation for instruments. This omission
was supplied by the Institution, which was subsequently indemnified
for the expense by the Chilian government.

In the observation of all the larger solar eclipses which have hap-
pened since the date of its organization the Institution has actively

REPORT OF THE: SECRETARY. ATW

and efficiently co-operated by publishing projections of the phases and
times of their occurrence in different parts of America.

Under its auspices, and partly at its expense, an expedition was
inaugurated by Lieutenant Gilliss to observe the great eclipse of 1858
in Peru, from which data of value for the improvement of solar and
lunar tables were determined, besides facts of interest in regard to
the physical constitution of the sun.

Assistance was also rendered to the expeditions under the direction
of the Coast Survey to observe the eclipse of July 18, 1860, one of
which was sent to Labrador, under the charge of Professor 8. Alex-
ander, of New Jersey, and the other to Washington Territory, under
that of Lieutenant Gilliss.

To these may be added an account of an instrument invented by
Rev. T. Hill, president of Harvard College, for the projection of

eclipses.

Physics and chemistry.—The Institution has fostered these sciences
in many different ways; among others, by importing models of the
most improved articles of apparatus, and making them known to
scientific men through lectures and otherwise.

It has instituted an extensive series of experiments on building
materials, particularly in reference to those employed by the gov-
ernment in the construction of the Capitol and other public edifices;
also alike series on acoustics, as applied to public halls, and the prin-
ciples deduced from these were practically applied in the construction
of a model lecture-room. It has made a very extended series of ex-
periments on different substances employed for light-house illumina-
tion, from which has resulted the substitution of another material for
sperm oil, and the consequent annual saving of a large amount of
money to the government.

In compliance with requests made by different departments of the
governinent and of Congress, particularly since the war, it has con-
ducted various series of investigations, principally in relation to ques-
tions involving mechanical, chemical, and physical principles, and has
made reports on subjects of this kind amounting, in the aggregate,
to several hundred.

To facilitate researches, a laboratory has been established and kept
constantly in working condition, the privilege of using it having been
given to various competent persons for experimenting in different
branches of physical science. Just now it is occupied by Dr. Weth-
erill for the purpose of conducting a series of analyses of samples of

48 REPORT OF, TME SECRETARY.

air from the halls of Congress, &c., from which a report is to be
made, under the direction of the Institution, on the ventilation of the
public buildings of this city.

The most important publications under this head are the researches
relative to electric currents, by Professor Secchi; on the explosibility
of nitre, by Dr. Hare; on the ammonia-cobalt bases, by Drs. Gibbs
and Genth; and on astronomical photography, by Dr. Henry Draper.

A valuable report on recent improvements in the chemical arts by
Booth & Morfit was published in 1852, and there have been given in the
annual reports of the Institution a series of translations and articles
presenting a view of the progress of physics and chemistry from
year to year, since 1853, among which we may particularly notice
the translation of Miller on recent contributions to electricity, and
the reprint of Powell on Radiant Heat.

Terrestrial magnetism.—The subject of terrestrial magnetism has
been prosecuted simultaneously with that of meteorology, and an
observatory was erected in the Smithsonian grounds, fitted up with
the most approved instruments, and conducted under the joint
auspices of the Institution and of the Coast Survey. After remain-
ing in operation for several years, the instruments were transferred
to Key West, as a remote station where observations were still more
desirable. Instruments were also furnished an expedition to Mexico,
and used with much success by Mr. Sonntag, whose results were
published in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Appa-
ratus was also furnished to Dr. Kane, Dr. Hayes, and other explorers,
by means of which valuable results were obtained.

Of the more important publications of the Institution, which have
tended to advance this science, may be mentioned the articles by
Dr. Locke, on the dip and intensity; the elaborate discussion, by
Professor Bache, of the magnetic observations made at Girard College
from 1841 to 1845; the report on magnetical observations in the
arctic seas by Dr. Kane, reduced at the expense of the Institution
by Mr. C. A. Schott, and those made in Pennsylvania and adjacent
States by Professor Bache, and in Mexico by Mr. Sonntag.

Explorations.—In the deficiency of means for more extended oper-
ations, as has been frequently represented in the annual reports, the
efforts of the Institution in the line of explorations and collections are
confined, as strictly as possible, to America; but within this limit
there are few regions which have not furnished scope, in some form,
to its activity. Arctic America, all the unknown portions of the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49,

United States, Mexico, Central and South America, and the West:
Indies, have been laid under contribution for facts and materials by-
which to advance science.

An eminently useful influence has been exerted by the Institution.
through the aid it has afforded in the organization of the different.
government explorations by land and by sea. Whether by official
representations to the heads of departments, or personal influence:
with officers and employés, it has secured the engagement of indi-
viduals competent to collect facts and specimens; it has instructed
persons thus engaged, and others, in the details of observation ; it
has superintended the preparation, and, in some cases, borne the ex-
pense of the necessary outfits ; has furnished fresh supplies from time
to time to the collectors while in the field ; received the collections
made, and preserved them for future study, or at once consigned
them to the hands of competent persons, both at home and abroad,
for investigation; directing the execution of the necessary drawings
and engravings for the reports, and, finally, superintending the print-
ing and even the distribution of any available copies of the completed
works to institutions of science. Prior to the establishment of the
Institution but little had been done by our government in the way of
scientific explorations, with the exception of that under Captain
Wilkes. But since then nearly every United States expedition,
whether a survey for a Pacific railroad route, a boundary line between
the United States and regions north or south of it, or within its
borders, a wagon-road across the Rocky mountains, or an ordinary
topographical exploration, has been influenced and aided more or
less, as above stated.. A list of the expeditions has been, from time
to time, published in the annual reports, and it is sufficient here to
say that their total number up to the present time is about fifty.

Besides these, similar explorations have been carried on without
any reference to the government, and either entirely or in a great
measure at the expense of the Institution, and always at its sugges~
tion, or under its direction. Prominent among these may be men-
tioned the three years’ researches in the arctic regions, by Mr. Ken-
nicott, with the co-operation of gentlemen of the Hudson’s Bay Com-
pany; of Mr. Drexler, in the region of Hudson’s bay, and also in the-
Rocky mountains ; of Mr. Coues, in Labrador ; of Lieutenant Feilner,
in Nebraska and Northern California; of Mr. John Xantus, at Fort;
Tejon, Cape St. Lucas, and in Western Mexico; of Lieutenant Trow-
bridge, on the coast of California; of Drs. Cooper and Suekley, in
Western America generally; of Drs. Coues and Beers, in Kansas,

4s

50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

4

New Mexico, and Arizona; of Dr. Irwin, in Arizona; of Dr. Hitz,
about Laramie Peak ; of Lieutenant Couch, in Texas and Mexico ; of
G. Wurdemann, Lieutenant Wright, Captain Woodbury, and others,
in Florida and the Gulf of Mexico ; of Dr. Sartorius, Professor Sumi-
chrast, Dr. Berendt, in Mexico; Dr. Von Frantz, J. Carniol, in
Costa Rica; of Mr. March, in Jamaica; of Mr. Wright, Dr. Gund-
lach, Professor Poey, in Cuba; Judge Carter, in Bolivia, besides
many others.

'
t
F
*

In addition to the collections which have been received from ex-
plorations organized under the direction of the Institution, large
numbers of duplicate specimens have been presented by the meteor-
ological observers and other Smithsonian collaborators, the whole
forming a body of material for the iliustration and study of the pro-
ducts of the American continent unequalled by any collection pre-
viously made. The explorations, however, as might be inferred,
have not been confined to the collecting of specimens, but have also

-furnished information relative to the topography, geology, physical
geography, ethnology, and the living fauna of the regions visited.

The results have been published by government, the Institution,
or other parties. The extent and importance of these publications
may be seen in the volumes of the reports of the Pacific rai‘road and
Mexican boundary surveys; of the United States astronomical expe-
dition to Chili, under the late lamented Captain Gilliss ; of Captain
Stansbury’s exploration of Utah; of Lieutenant Michler’s of the
Isthmus of Darien, &c., &c.; in the volumes of the Smithsonian pub-
lications, and in the transactions of nearly all the scientific institu-
tions in the United States.

In order to facilitate the operations of collectors, a series of gene-
ral directions have been prepared and widely distributed, free of
charge, for collecting, preserving, and transporting specimens of
natural history, and also special instructions for collecting nests, eggs,
shells, insects, &c.

Description and distribution of collections and specimens. —The object
of making these collections, in conformity with the policy of the In-
stitution, was not merely to supply a large museum in Washington
with permanent specimens or duplicates for exchange, but to furnish
the naturalists of the world with the materials for advancing the
science of the natural history of North America, and of facilitating
the study of its various branches by supplying museums both in the
United States and in Europe with sets of type specimens.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. |

In pursuance of this object, full sets of the specimens collected
have been submitted to a large number of naturalists, both in this
country and abroad, for critical study and description, and it is not
too much to say that scarcely a monographic investigation has been
conducted for ten years past in any branch of American zoology which
has not derived part or the whole of its material from the Smithsonian
collections. Duplicates of the specimens, when described, have been
made up into series for distribution, always accurately labelled, and
are usually types of some published investigation. The average of
such distribution has, for the last ten years, been at least ten thousand
specimens annually, while the distribution of 1864 amounted to nearly
five thousand species and seventeen thousand specimens. In this
way, besides supplying the principal museums of Europe with speci-
mens, all the older museums in this country as well as Canada have
been largely increased, and the foundation for several new establish-
ments of a similar kind has been furnished. As an illustration of
what has been done in the way last mentioned, I may cite the large
donation of labelled specimens which has been made to the museum
of the University of Michigan, and the co-operation which has been
afforded the liberal-minded citizens of Chicago in founding a museum
and establishing a society of natural history, which, under the direc-
tion of Mr. Kennicott and Dr. Stimpson, is diffusing a taste for the
study of nature in that city of unparalleled growth, which cannot be
otherwise than highly salutary in ameliorating the sensual effects of
great material prosperity.

The Institution has also done good service in promoting and assist-
ing the formation of local societies in rural districts for the collection
of specimens and the recording of natural phenomena. ‘To all socie-
ties of this kind, as well as to colleges and academies making special
application, Jabelled specimens have been presented.

This distribution of specimens is very different from the ordinary
exchanges conducted between institutions or individuals, which usually
involve the return of an equivalent. The question with the Smith-
sonian Institution is, not what can be had in return, but where a par-
ticular specimen or series of specimens can be placed so as best to
advance the cause of science, by being most accessible to the largest
number of students engaged in original investigations.

Paleontology, geology, physical geography, &c.—Appropriations have
been made for investigations of the surface formation of the Con-
necticut valley by Professor EH. Hitchcock, and for the collection of
materials for the illustration of the geology and paleontology of par-

52 ’ REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ticular regions. Appropriation has also been made to Professor
Guyot for a barometrical survey of the different parts of the Al-
leghany mountains, and to other persons for collecting observations
on heights, as determined in different parts of the country by the
various canal and railway surveys.

The publications on these subjects, besides the papers of Professor
Hitchcock on surface geology, are as follows:

A memoir on Mosasaurus, by Dr. R. W. Gibbs.

On the extinct species of the fossil ox and sloth of North America,
and on the ancient Fauna of Nebraska, by Dr. Leidy.

On the Physical Geography of the Mississippi Valley, by Charles
Ellet.

On the Law of Deposit of Flood Tide, by Admiral Davis.

On the Fluctuations of the level of the great American Lakes, by
C. Whittlesey.

On the Paleontology of the Upper Missouri, and Check List of
miocene, cretaceous and jurassic Invertebrata, by F. B. Meek.

A memoir by Dr. Leidy, now in press, on the extinct reptiles of
the cretaceous period, will, it is believed, be a valuable manual of
reference.

The Institution has published a Check List of minerals, with their
symbols, prepared by Mr. Hegleston, with special reference to facili-
tating the labelling of the Smithsonian minerals and the exchange of
specimens, and it may be mentioned that extensive distribution has
been made of specimens of building stone employed by the govern-
ment.

Botany.—This branch of general natural history has been advanced
by the Institution, not only by means of the publication of original
memoirs, but also by explorations and collections made at the expense
of the Smithsonian fund. The most important work which has
been published is a large quarto volume, illustrated by expensive
colored plates, on the algae of the entire North American waters.
The work was written for the Institution by Dr. Harvey, of the
University of Dublin, and has been the means of rendering this
order of the vegetable kingdom more generally known. The Insti-
tution has also published several papers on the plants of New Mexico
and California, by Dr. Gray, of Cambridge, and Dr. Torrey, of New
York.

Duplicates of the specimens described have been presented to in-
stitutions at home and abroad. Considerable labor has also been ex-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53

pended in the preparation of an original report on the forest trees of
America, by Dr. Gray. This work, however, has been interrupted
for some time, but will be resumed, it is expected, during the present
year.

General Zoology.—A large part of the collections made by the In-
stitution belong to the general class of zoology, intended to advance
the study of animal life upon the continent of America.

The ornithology of America has always been a speciality of the
Smithsonian Institution, more efforts having been made to perfect its
collection in this department than any other. The Institution has pub-
lished the first part of a work by Dr. T. M. Brewer, suitably illus-
trated, on the distribution and habits of North American birds during
the breeding season, with descriptions and figures of their eggs, the
materials being derived entirely from the collections of the Institution,
and mostly made at its special request. ‘This is the first separate
work on North American zoology ever prepared. A catalogue of
North American birds, prepared by Professor 8. F. Baird, has been
extensively used at home and abroad in labelling collections.

Professor Baird is now engaged in preparing a general report
on our knowledge of North American ornithology to the present
date, with the addition of the species of Central and South America
and the West Indies; the materials being derived almost entirely
from the specimens collected by the Institution, which have been in-
creased since the publication of the extensive work on the same sub-
ject by Professor Baird in the Pacific railroad report, from 12,000 to
35,000.

The collections which have been made by the Institution for the
illustration of mammalia have been very extensive, amounting to
6,000 specimens, and have not only included many duplicates of the
species previously known, but a very large number entirely new to
science. A catalogue of North American mammals, chiefly those
collected by the Institution, prepared by Professor Baird, has been
published and distributed to those interested in the study; also a
monograph of North American bats, prepared by Dr. H. Allen.
Materials are now in course of accumulation to complete the account
of the classes of mammals of North America which have not been in-
cluded in the publications of the Institution and Pacific railroad
reports.

As with all American vertebrata, the collections of reptiles and
fishes made by the Institution have been very extensive, and numer-

54 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ous monographs or articles have been published relative to them in
the Pacific railroad reports and the proceedings of different natural
history societies, the Institution having published a synopsis of the
serpents of North America, and a monograph of the Cottoids.

The Institution has materially aided the study of the entomology
of this country, not only by the collections in that branch, but by
preparing and publishing a series of works for the purpose of ex-
hibiting the state of knowledge on the subject and facilitating its
further advancement. It has published and distributed the follow-
ing under this head :

Instructions for collecting and preserving insects, and catalogues,
synopses, or monographs of the Diptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera,
and Neuroptera, prepared by the most competent authorities in Eu-
rope and America.

It has also in course of preparation works relative to the Hymen-
optera, Homoptera, Hemiptera, Orthoptera, &. —

In the preparation of these publications the Institution is indebted

for gratuitous assistance to Dr. Jno. Leconte, Baron Osten Sacken,
and others.

Conchology.—A large collection of specimens of shells was received
from the United States exploring expedition, which has been much
increased by subsequent additions. All the shells of the west coast
of the United States, and those generally collected by the exploring
expedition, have been put into the hands of Mr. P. P. Carpenter, of
England, the new ones to be described for publication, and the dupli-
cates of the whole to be arranged for distribution to museums, col-
leges, and other establishments. This work is nearly completed,
and a large number of partial sets of the shells have been distributed
in accordance with the plan just mentioned. The publications on
this subject are lists of North American shells, circulars relative to
collecting, an elementary introduction to the study of conchology,
and an extensive work in two octavo volumes on the Bibliography
of North American Conchology, by W. G. Binney, and a monograph
of the Corbiculade, by Temple Prime. Besides these a number of
articles are in the press or in course of preparation.

Microscopy.—Encouragement has been given to this branch of
science by importing, as samples, simple formsof working microscopes,
and also by stimulating our native artists to greater exertion in the
construction of this instument, by ordering the best that could be
produced. Samples of microscopic organisms have been collected

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 55

and distributed to observers, and examinations and reports have
been made on a large number of this class of objects sent to the In-
stitution. The publications in regard to this subject are.a number
of papers by Professor Bailey, of West Point, and a very interesting
memoir by Dr. Leidy, of Philadelphia, on a fauna and flora within
living anunals.

Physiology.—No experiments on this subject have been made under
the immediate direction of the Institution, although it has furnished
the materials for investigation by other parties. The publications in
regard to it are chemical and physical researches concerning North
American vertebrata, by Dr. J. Jones ; researches upon the venom
of the rattlesnake, with an investigation of the anatomy and physi-
ology of the organs concerned, by Dr. S. W. Mitchell; on the
breathing organs of turtles, by Drs. Mitchell and Morehouse; on
the anatomy of the nervous system of rana pipiens, by Dr. J. Wy-
man; and on the medulla oblongata by Dr. John Dean.

Ethnology and Philology.—One of the earliest efforts on the part of
the Institution was directed to the advancement of the science of
American ethnology. Its first publication as well as introductory
volume to the series of Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, be-
ing the work of Squier and Davis, on the ancient monuments of the
Mississippi valley, remains the standard treatise on this subject.
This was followed by a similar work on the antiquities of New York,
by Mr. Squier ; and those of Wisconsin, by Mr. Lapham, of Ohio ;
and of Lake Superior, by Mr. Whittlesey ; a memoir on some anti-
quities of Mexico, by Brantz Mayer; and a general introduction to
the whole subject of American archeology, by Mr. Haven, besides
many articles of less extent in one cr another of the Smithsonian
series. Several pamphlets of instructions for making observations
and collections in this science have also been issued.

In the department of philology, also, the Institution, has evinced
its zeal and activity by the publication, among others, of the elaborate
work on the Dakota language, by Mr. Riggs; that on the Yoruba
language, by Mr. Bowen; and that on the Chinook jargon, by Mr.
Turner and Mr. Gibbs. To Mr. Shea, of New York, who is engaged
in the preparation of a library of American languages, annual appro-
priations from the funds of the Institution have been made in fur-
therance of the publication of linguistic memoirs furnished by its
correspondents.

Systematic efforts have been directed by the Tristan to the
collection of as perfect a series as possibleof the specimens of Ameri-

56 ' REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

can antiquities, and of those illustrative of the habits of the modern
native tribes. Already an extensive collection has been accumulated,
and the preparation and distribution of a series of colored casts of
the more interesting specimens of aboriginal art have been com-
menced. The former picture gallery had just been fitted up with
cases two hundred feet in length, for the reception of these, when the
disastrous fire occurred, which destroyed the upper part of the centre
building; fortunately, however, before any of these specimens had
been placed in the room.

Correspondence. —The Institution has constantly received a large
number of communications, asking information on a variety of sub-
jects, particularly in regard to the solution of scientific questions, the
names and characters of objects of natural history, and the analysis
of soils, minerals, and other materials which pertain to the industrial
resources of the country. Answers have in all cases been given to
these inquiries, either directly by the officers of the Institution or by
reports from the Smithsonian collaborators. A considerable portion
of the correspondence burned in the office of the Secretary was of this
character. The loss in this case is to be regretted, not only on
account of the valuable information the letters and answers contained,
but also on account of the illustration they afforded of the influence
of the Institution, and the condition of the public mind at a given
time. Every subject connected with science which strongly attracts
popular attention never fails to call forth a large number of inquiries
and suggestions.

International exchanges. —To facilitate the direct correspondence
between the learned institutions and scientific men of the two worlds,
and the free exchange of their publications, has, from the first, been
a special object of attainment with the Smithsonian Institution. Year
by year its plans for this purpose have been modified and improved,
until the system has become as nearly complete and satisfactory as
the funds and force at its disposal will allow. At the present day it
is the great medium of scientific intercommunication between the New
World and the Old; its benefits and services being recognized alike by
individuals, institutions, and governments. Its parcels pass all the
custom-houses without question or interference, while American and
foreign lines of transportation, with rare exceptions, vie with each
other in the extent of the privileges accorded it. To so great an
extent has its sphere of activity been enlarged, that it is no exaggera-
tion to say that a very large proportion of all international exchanges
of the kind referred to are now made through its instrumentality.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 57

At the present time the Institution is prepared to receive, at periods
made known through its circulars, any books or pamphlets of scientific,
literary, or benevolent character which any institutions or individuals
in America may wish to present to a correspondent elsewhere, sub-
ject only to the condition of being delivered in Washington free of
cost, and of being accompanied by a separate list of the parcels sent.
Where any party may have special works to distribute, the Institu-
tion is always prepared to furnish a list of suitable recipients. In
many cases where works of value have been published by the United
States or State governments, likely to be of importance to students
abroad, application has been made by the Institution for copies, in
most cases with success. The articles and volumes, when received,
are assorted and combined into packages, and these, after being
properly addressed and enclosed in boxes, are despatched to the
agents of the Institution in London, Leipsic, Paris, and Amsterdam.
The boxes are there unpacked, and the contents distributed through
the proper channels ; the returns for these transmissions are received
by the same agents, and boxed, and forwarded to Washington, from
which point the parcels for other parties are sent to their proper
destination. All the expenses of packing, boxing, agencies, freights,
&c., are borne by the Institution, with the exception of the local
conveyance of single parcels by express or otherwise within the
United States.

LOCAL OBJECTS.

Under this head we have classed those parts of the programme
which were indicated by Congress, and which do not, so directly as
the objects we have already described, contribute to the advance of
knowledge. It will be seen, however, that they have been made as
far as possible to harmonize with the active operations, and to assist
in their progress.

Inbrary.—Although the act of Congress directed that provision
should be made for the »ccommodation of a ligrary, on a liberal scale,
it was soon seen, after the organization of the Institution, that it
would be impossible, from the income which could be devoted to it,
to establish a first-class general library. Even had this been practi-
cable, it would still have seemed superfluous to do so in the very
vicinity of the miscellaneous library of Congress, which is every
year increasing in extent under the liberal appropriations which are
annually made for the purchase of books. It was therefore deemed

58 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

preferable; and more consonant with the purposes of the Institution, —
to forma special library, which might constitute, as it were, a sup-

plement to the library of Congress, and-consist, for the most part,

of complete sets of the proceedings and transactions of all the learned

societies in the wdfld, and of other serials essential for reference by

students specially engaged in original scientific research. The efforts

of the Institution to carry out this plan, which has since been sanc-

tioned by Congress, have been eminently successful. Principally

through exchanges, and occasionally hy purchase, a more complete

collection of the works above mentioned has been procured than is

to be found in any library of the United States, or is easily met with

even in Europe. The Institution has been assisted in making this
collection by the liberality of many of the older libraries abroad, which,

on application, have furnished from their duplicates volumes and even
whole sets to complete series of works long since out of print, and
which, in some cases, could not have been obtained through any
other means. The library isalso quite rich in monographic or special

treatises in the physical and natural sciences, lacking as yet, it is true,

some of the more expensive volumes, but still affording the means of.
prosecuting almost any scientific investigation. One specialty con-

sists of the large number of maps end charts obtained by exchange

from geographical and hydrographical establishments, &c. This col-

lection is as complete as any in the country.

No effort is spared to render the library of the Institution condu-
cive to the advance of science. Two editions of the catalogue of
serial works have already been published, and a third is now in press;
this will probably fill four hundred octavo pages, and will be com-
pleted in the course of the present year, to be followed by a cata-
logue of the special works.

As in most libraries of special character, and, indeed, in most large
public libraries, the public are allowed free access to the library-room
during office hours, but are not generally permitted to take books
away. When, however, any applicant is known to be engaged in
the prosecution of original investigations, which promise to advance
science, and requires the assistance of books found in the Smithsonian

library, they are freely lent, even to persons in the remote portions of
the United States. Any losses which may occur by the adoption of
this course are more than compensated by the advantages derived
from it. ’

Congress had provided by the law of organization that a copy of
all copyright works should be presented to the library of this Institu

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59

tion. This it was supposed would be the means of securing im-
portant additions to the library. It was found, however, in practice,
to impose a burden on the funds of the Institution for which no
adequate compensation accrued ; copies of the most valuable works
. were not presented, because there was no penalty imposed for the
neglect to comply with the requirement, and the expense of clerk-
hire in recording and furnishing certificates was greater than the
value of the articles received, consisting, as they did principally, of
sheets of music, labels of patent medicines, novels, and element-
ary works of instruction. The law was, therefore, on special appli-
cation, so modified that authors were required in future only to send
a copy of their works to the copyright bureau of the Department of
the Interior and to the Library of Congress.

A special library of the character above described, consisting of
serials, must of necessity constantly increase with the additions made
to the series of the existing associations which annually publish their
transactions. The Smithsonian library, therefore, comprises a prin-
ciple of indefinite augmentation, both as regards extent and value ;
and although this increase will result mainly from the exchanges
produced by the active operations, yet additional accommodations
will be constantly acquired. Hence it may become a matter of consid-
eration, hereafter, whether, since Congress has appropriated $160, 000
to the enlargement of the accommodation for its own library, it may
not be expedient to request that the Smithsonian collection be re-
ceived and arranged as one of its departments, while the free use and
general control of the same shall still be retained by the Institution.

Museum.—The same remarks which have been made in regard to
the library may, with little modification, be applied to the museum.
The portion of the funds of the Institution which it is practicable to
devote to the museum is not sufficient to support an establishment of
this kind worthy of the seat of government of the United States.
Indeed, it is generally now conceded by those who have critically ex-
amined the subject, that the accommodation and perpetual mainten-
ance Of a large collection of objects of nature and art intended for
popular exhibition, or even for educational purposes, ought not to have
been imposed upon the Smithsonian fund. It has been seen from the
foregoing statement how much can be done in the way of advancing
natural history independent of a costly edifice, and the support of
a popular museum in which are to be continually exhibited even
type specimens. It is true that specimens of this character ought

60 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

to be preserved for study; but seeing that there are in the country a
number of special museums which would gladly become the custodians
of these objects, and that the hope is yet confidently entertained
that Congress will, in due time, establish a national museum which
shall rival those of other countries, it has been thought advisable
to restrict the collections which are retained in the Smithsonian
museum—first, to those made by the exploring expedition, the care
of which Congress has devolved upon the Institution ; and, second,
to such type specimens as are thought of special interest as illus-
trating the Smithsonian publications.

The museum has been’rendered particularly attractive to the visit-
ors and inhabitants of Washington by the large number of birds and
mammals which have been mounted for public exhibition, and in this
way it has undoubtedly contributed to the popularity, though it has
diminished the efficiency, of the Institution. The danger, however,
to be guarded against, is the constant tendency to expand the col-
lections, and hence gradually to absorb the income in their support.
It should be recollected that the building has borne upon the re-
sources of the Institution with a cost of more than $300,000, and that
at least an additional $100,000 will be necessary to repair the recent
damages, and this mainly to render the edifice better adapted for the
accommodation of the library and museum.

Little has been said in this sketch in regard to the gallery of art.
The impropriety of expending the income of the bequest in attempt-
ing to form a collection of articles in this line worthy of the country
has had no prominent advocates, even among artists; still, in con-
nexion with the museum, a collection has been formed which princi-
pally consists of plaster casts of distinguished individuals, and a few
pictures which have either been presented to the Institution or are
the property of the government. The only purchase in this line
which the Institution has made is that from Hon. George P. Marsh,
of a series of valuable engravings to illustrate the early history of
art.

Lectures. —As a part of the programme of organization. finally
adopted, courses of lectures were to be delivered, but:instead of at-
tempting to furnish popular instruction by this means to all parts of
the country, as was at first proposed, the lectures have been confined
to the city of Washington ; and in order to render them generally
useful, synopses of the more important ones have been published in
the annual reports. At the commencement of the Institution, and

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61

before the plan of organization was generally understood, special
care was taken to invite as lecturers men of prominence in the line
of literature that they might have an opportunity to become familiar
with the plan adopted, and in this way many prejudices were re-
moved and much information diffused as to the character of the es-
tablishment.

The lectures were commenced before the building was erected, the
first course being in 1847, by the Rev. Dr. Scoresby, of England, on
the construction and use of the large telescope of Harl Rosse, and
have been continued every winter up to the present time. Until
within the last four years they were well attended, and no doubt
produced a beneficial effect ; but since the commencement of the war
and the introduction into the city of a large number of sources of
amusement, the audience has fallen off, or has been composed in a
large degree of persons seeking amusement rather than information,
The most important result produced by the lectures is that derived
from their publication. ‘

Nothing definite can be said at present as to the financial arrange-
ments for the repair of the building. The subject is still before Con-
gress, and although the idea has been confidently entertained that an
appropriation would be made for the purpose, yet from the discussion
- which took place in the meeting of the joint committee of the two
Houses appointed to consider this matter, I do not think a resolution
authorizing such an appropriation will be adopted. In view of the
impression produced by this discussion, at which I was invited to be
present, I suggested to the committee that if the members would
agree to recommend, an appropriation to pay the back premium on
coin for the last four years’ interest on the Smithsonian fund, and in
the event of the success of the recommendation, I thought the Regents
would have it in their power to finish the repairs by means of the
extra fund which has been accumulated.

Respectfully submitted,
JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary.

WASHINGTON, 1865.

62 ARTICLES REFERRED TO IN THE SECRETARY'S REPORT,

DRAPER’S TELESCOPE.

BY THE REV. T. W. WEBB, A.M., F.RJA.S.

From the ‘‘ Intellectual Obserzcr,’’ London.

It is gratifying to observe that, amidst all the calamities and distresses and
contusion of a most unhappy civil war, the studies of peace have not been
wholly lost to sight. A remarkable instance of this is afforded by the recent
appearance, among the publications of the American Smithsonian Institution,
of a very interesting and valuable memoir, “On the Construction of a Silvered
Glass Telescope, 154 inches in aperture, and its use in celestial photography,
by Henry Draper, M.D., Professor of Natural Science in the University of New
York.” <A copy of this, through the courtesy of the author, being now in my
hands, I have thought that some account of its contents might prove interesting,
especially at a time when silvered glass specula are attracting some attention in
England, and (unless we are much mistaken) are likely to be more generally
known and valued as most important aids to the progress of observation.

The opening sentence of this memoir requires, however, we venture to think,
a little qualification. “The construction of a reflecting telescope capable of
_ showing every celestial object now known,” Dr. Draper tells us, ‘“ is not a very
difficult task.” We should have no hesitation in expunging the negative here,
unless it were permitted to add, “when study, and labor, and ingenuity, and
perseverance have been brought to bear upon it, equal to those displayed by
Dr. Draper.” His subsequent remark is of more universal application: “The
cost of materials is but trifling compared with the result obtained; and I can
see no reason why silvered glass instruments should not come into general use
among amateurs. ‘The future hopes of astronomy lie in the multitude of ob-
servers, and in the concentration of the action of many minds.” His first idea
was derived from an examination, in 1857, of Lord Rosse’s great reflector, and
of the machinery by which it was perfected; and on his return home in the
following year, he resolved to construct a similar, though smaller instrument,
larger, however, than any in America, and adapted to celestial photography.
A metal speculum was first completed, but was split in two during the winter
of 1860 by the expansion of a few drops of water that became frozen in the
supporting case ; and his attention was then, at Sir John Herschel’s suggestion,
turned to silvered glass mirrors, as reflecting more than 90 per cent. of incident
light, with only gth of the weight of metal. The year 1861 was occupied in
overcoming the difficulties of grinding and polishing three 154-inch disks of
glass, as well as a variety of smaller pieces. Three similar mirrers were found
almost essential, as two would often be so much alike that a third was necessary
to ghin a further step in advance. One was made to acquire a parabolic figure,
(see INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER, iii, 213,) and bore a power of 1000. The
winter was spent in perfecting the art of silvering and studying photographie

DRAPER’'S TELESCOPE. 63

processes. <A large portion of 1862 was spent with a regiment in a campaign
in Virginia, but in the autumn sand-clocks and clepsydras of various kinds were
made, and the driving mechanism attained great excellence. During the wiater
the art of communicating the parabolic figure by Foucault's method was acquired,
and two 15-inch mirrors, and two of 9 inches, for enlarging photographs, were
completed. ‘The greater part of 1863 was spent in lunar and planetary pho-
tography and the enlargement of negatives, some of which were maguified to
three feet in diameter. T'wo specula of 154 inches were also completed, ground
to an oblique focus for front view. ‘This work,” he adds—and any one with
very little experience may judge of the immense amount of toil involved—* has
ail been accomplished in the intervals of professional labor.” Many of the
expedients adopted in the working, which are detailed at full length, are

”?

strikingly characteristic of ingenuity as well as perseverance. To avoid the
tediousness of grinding out defects in a metal surface, they were “stopped
out,” after the manner of engravers, and the uncovered space corroded away
by the action of nitro-hydrochloric acid. By a similar mode, the strength of
the acid being graduated in separate zones towards the edge, an increase of 15
inches in focal length was gained. The grinder and mirror were at another
time included in a voltaic circuit to abridge the grinding process, and an idea
Was entertained of saving much weight by electrotyping a brass mirror with
speculum metal. When he commenced operations with glass he had to polish
with his own hands more than one hundred mirrors of various sizes, from 19
inches to 4 inch, and to experience very frequent failures for three years before
he was able to produce large surfaces certainly and speedily. His labor would
have been much diminished, inasmuch as he would have been spared the cause-
less condemnation of many fine mirrors, as well as the working of some square
ones, had he become earlier aware of an important fact respecting the rigidity
of the material.* Generally speaking, a sheet of glass,even when very thick,
can hardly be set on edge without so much flexure as to render it optically
worthless ; but, fortunately, in every disk that he tried, there was one diameter
on either end of which it might stand without harm. On turning a disk of 154
inches, with a thickness of 14 inch, one quarter round, it could hardly be
realized that the surface was the same: 90° more restored it to its original
defining power ; and this effect was found to be independent of any irregularity
on the edge of the disk and of the mode of support. Dr. Draper refers it, with
great probability, to the structure of the glass, resulting from its having been
subjected to rolling pressure. A similar irregularity of structure is knewn to
obtain in many large object-glasses, and Dr. Draper specifies the great achromatic
by Cauchoix, presented by the late Duke of Northumberland to the University
of Cambridge, as having had its lenses turned round by Mr. Airy in monnting,
for this reason. Short’s Gregorian specula, too, were always marked on the
same account. The strange deformations of image produced by heat, even by

* In examining and testing last year some fine 2-inch specula of Mr. With’s workmanship,
Thad independently ascertained this peculiarity, so far as a best position for each was con-
cerned, but I stopped short of Dr. Draper’s discovery of a regular axis of rigidity.

G4 ARTICLES REFERRED TO IN THE SECRETARY'S REPORT.

the warmth of the hand for a few seconds, are described and represented.
From such distortions the speculum would not recover in ten miuutes, and the
error would be rendered permanent by repolishing in that condition ; and so
injurious may such causes, even in a lesser degree, prove during the delicate
process of the final correction of the spherical error, that “a current of cold or
warm air, a gleam of sunlight, the close approach of some person, an unguarded
touch, the application of cold water injudiciously, will ruin the labor of days.”
He found it a matter of not unfrequent occurrence that a speculum would per-
form much better with rays of a certain amount of obliquity,* deviating from
2° to 3° from the axis. It is obvious that if this peculiar form could be pro-
duced at will, and to an adequate degree, it would render the Lemairean or
front view telescope perfect. Dr. D., however, found that the image was never
quite as fine as in the usual kind of mirrors. <A letter of Maskelyne subse-
quently came under his notice, in which he describes a very great improvement
effected in a 6-foot reflector by Short, by inclining the large speculum 24°, and
remarks, very reasonably, that “ probably it will be found that this circum-
stance is by no means peculiar to this telescope ;”’ a hint which may be worthy
of the consideration of the possessors of reflectors. Such surfaces require to be
reground, or “re-fined,” ¢.e., finished with the finest emery, to get rid of this
obliquity, as repolishing, though occasionally successful in a few minutes, wifl
not always effect it; the attempt failed in one instance, though continued for
133 hours.

The modes of forming the requisite tools, of preparing emery, of grinding,
polishing, testing, (by Foucault’s mode,) and silvering the surface, are somewhat
too technical to find a place here, but some interesting facts are worthy of being
referred to. Such is the effect produced by the removal from a cast-iron tool,
154 inches in diameter, divided into #-inch squares, like a chessboard, of every
alternate square, by an acid. Though the corrosion extended only to a very
slight depth, it flattened the curvature of the tool 72 inches. “This shows
what a state of tension and compression there must be in such a mass, when the
removal of a film of metal J;th of an inch thick, here and there, from one sur-
face, causes so great a change.” Another important remark is, how injurious
an atmospheric disturbance is set up by the intermixture of currents of warm
air from the observer’s person with the rays falling on or reflected from the
mirror—an observation which I made many years ago, and which any one may
test by directing a Newtonian to any bright object, and placing one hand beneath
the aperture, while an eye-piece held in the other hand, and applied to the eye,
is carried back a considerable distance, so as to obtain a very long focus, and
render the ascending currents more visible. It has not, I believe, been generally
remarked how prejudicial an effect this must have on definition in the front-
view reflector, and it would be a worthy object of attention to remove the evil
by the interposition of some non-conducting shield.

*T became acquainted with this fact many years ago, when working metals for a small
Newtonian reflector.

—

DRAPER’S TELESCOPE. 65

A full trial was given to no less than seven machines, on the principles
employed by Lord Rosse and Lassell, with modifications of his own. ‘The
prime mover, called the “ foot-power,’’ was avery ingenious contrivance, in
which very little force is lost in overcoming friction, and which is frequently
employed in America for dairy use. Dr. D. himself generally walked in his
own, and has travelled some days, during five hours, more than ten miles. It
consists of an endless band of short transverse boards or “ treads,’ interlocking
so as to form a platform to tread upon, which will not yield downwards on its
upper side, but hangs loose in the return half beneath, and passing over wheels
and rollers at either end. This succession of boards, having one end a little
higher than the other, rams downwards as soon as a weight is placed upon it,
and communicates motion to a large wheel on the axle of the one over which it
turns, and through it to any connected machinery. Being placed between a
handrail on either side, it offers the appearance of a little narrow bridge, as over
a ditch, composed of transverse boards, on which the mover may walk all day
without getting a step forward. It is, in fact, a species of treadmill, of a much
more pleasant construction.

The mode of giving a parabolic figure finally preferred by Dr. D. is that of
“‘loeal retouches,” in which the edge of a spherical mirror is flattened, or, which
he thinks preferable, the centre is bored out deeper, by appropriate polishers of
curvatures differing slightly from that of the original tool on which it was
wrought. This method, as invented by M. Léon Foucault, at Paris, was em-
ployed by hand, but has been practiced by Dr. D. with suitable machinery, and
with excellent results ; his great specula, thus finished, bearing a power of 1200,
and dividing the celebrated test-pair 7? Andromede; while so great is the
light-collecting power of 154 inches, that the companion of Wega can be per-
ceived even with the unsilvered surface; some portions of the moon are even
more visible than after silvering—a hint worth notice. When silvered, the
quantity of lunar light is so overpowering as to impair for a long time the vision
of an eye placed at the focus. Several modes of silvering were tried by Dr. D.,
some devised by himself. Foucault’s proved uncertain in its results; that of
Cimeg, with tartrate of potash and soda, for looking-glasses, modified so as to
fit the silver for being polished on the reverse side, he found superior to any,
and in using it “never on any occasion failed to secure bright, hard, and in
every respect perfect films.” Their thickness is about 559595 of an inch—nearly
the same with that of gold-leaf of equal transparency—the sun appearing
through the silver of a light-blue tint. Variations in its thickness are conse-
quently only small fractions of that fraction, and of no optical moment whatever.
It tarnishes quickly if exposed to sulphuretted hydrogen—a defect which has
been avoided in the English process—and it may be split up into fissures by
damp; but heat does not affect it, and it is generally very enduring. “I have
some,” the doctor says, “which have been used as diagonal reflectors in the
Newtonian, and have been exposed during a large part of the day to the heat of
the sun concentwated by the 15}-inch mirror. These small mirrors are never
covered, and yet the one now in the telescope has been there a year, and has

58

66 ARTICLES REFERRED TO IN THE SECRETARY'S REPORT.

had the dusty film, like that which accumulates on glass, polished off it a dozen
times.”

Besides other interesting optical particulars, the memoir contains many direc-
tions for the successful practice of celestial photography, some of which might
be found equally valuable for terrestrial purposes ; and to these we may advert
on a future occasion, adopting for the present the author’s closing remarks :
“Tn concluding this account of a silvered glass telescope, I may answer an
inquiry which, doubtless, will be made by many of my readers, whether this
kind of reflector can ever rival in size and efficiency such great metallic specula
as those of Sir W. Herschel, the Earl of Rosse, and Mr. Lassell? My expe-
rience in the matter, strengthened by the recent successful attempt of M. Fou-
cault to figure such a surface more than thirty inches in diameter, assures me
that not only can the four and six feet telescopes of those astronomers be
equalled, but even excelled. Itis merely an affair of expense and patience. I
hope that the minute details I have given in this paper may lead some one to
make the effort.”

BRIEF REVIEW OF A MEMOIR ON THE CRETACEOUS REPTILES OF THE
UNITED STATES, PUBLISHED IN THE FOURTEENTH VOLUME OF THE
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE.

BY THE AUTHOR, JOSEPH LEIDY, M. D

THE cretaceous formations are so named from the Latin creta, chalk, from the
fact that the chalk of England forms the most striking rock of the series.
They underlie or immediately precede the tertiary formations, and contain a
great many fossils. Plants are rare because the cretaceous rocks are all of
marine origin, or consist of deposits which were formed at the bottom of the
ocean. ‘The remains of animals are numerous, but they are confined to the
lower orders, as no authentic traces of birds or mammals have yet been dis-
covered in them.

Cretaceous formations, as indicated by their contained fossils and relative
position to other rocks, are widely extended throughout the United States,
though they contain no true chalk. They are mainly composed of beds of
sand, clay, soft and compact limestones. Among the sandy layers are extensive |
deposits known as green-sand, which, under the name of marl, is much em-
ployed as a fertilizing material.

The cretaceous formations extend in a large tract through New Jersey,
Maryland, and Delaware, and appear in isolated patches in North and South
Carolina and Georgia. From the western part of the latter State they curve
in a wide crescent-like tract through Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee, to
the mouth of the Ohio river. Thence passing in a narrow band through
Arkansas, they expand so as to occupy a great portion of the region between

CRETACEOUS REPTILES OF THE UNITED STATES. 67

the Mississippi river and the Rocky mountains, reaching north into British
America, and south into Mexico. In New Jersey they are estimated to have
a thickness of from four to five hundred feet; in the region of the Upper
Missouri, from two to two thousand five hundred feet.

Multitudes of fossils are found in the American cretaceous formations, though
the species appear not to be so numerous as in those of Kurope. The mollusks
are particularly abundant, and among them are a great many species of cham-
bered shells. A species of ammonite is found on the Upper Missouri as large
as an ordinary fore-wheel of a wagon. Remains of fishes are Tikewise numerous,
but generally they are found in a very fragmentary condition. Scales, vertebree,
and teeth, are usually the fossils which represent them. ‘The teeth of sharks
are especially numerous. Bones of reptiles are also abundant, and their remains
form the subject of the author’s memoir. As in the European cretaceous
formations, no evidences have yet been discovered of the existence of birds or
mammals in those of the United States.

Most of ‘the reptilian remains described by the author have been derived
from New Jersey, where they are constantly being discovered in the digging
of marl for agricultural purposes. Various genera and species of the crocodile
family existed during the cretaceous period, as indicated by their remains.
Some of these had the skeleton constructed after the same pattern as those now
living, while others were peculiar, or have no near representatives in existence.

All living crocodiles, under which term we include the gavials and alligators,
have the vertebre or bones of the spinal column, with their bodies concave in
front and convex behind, so that they are firmly jointed in a ball and socket-
like manner. Several species of extinct crocodiles, having the spinal column
constructed in the same manner, have been discovered in the cretaccous lime-
stone and green-sand of New Jersey and Delaware. One of the latter species,
named Thoracosaurus neocesariensis, signifying the armor-covered saurian of
New Jersey, resembled in its form and size the modern long-snouted gavial, or
crocodile of the Ganges. A nearly entire skull of this animal was discovered
imbedded in limestone on the farm of General William Irick, near Vincenttown,
Burlington county, New Jersey, and is now preserved in the museum of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Fragments of jaws and long,
curved, conical teeth of the same species have been found in other localities of
the State, as the highlands of Neversink, the vicinity of Blackwoodtown, Cam-
den county, Big Timber creek, Gloucester county, and in Burlington county.
Vertebre and other bones, including specimens of the strong osseous plates of
the skin, have likewise been discovered in Burlington county.

The skull of this crocodile, when perfect, has measured over a yard in length,
and the whole animal about twenty-five feet.

A species of the same genus, the Thoracosaurus macrorhynchus has been
discovered in a cretaceous formation of France, and a fine skull of it is pre-
served in the museum of the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris.

Another extinct crocodile, named Bottosaurus Harlani, after Dr. Harlan, who

68 ARTICLES REFERRED TO IN THE SECRETARY'S REPORT.

first noticed the species in 1824, is yet only known from several fragments of
jaws, a few teeth, and vertebree, found in the green-sand of Burlington county,
New Jersey. The specimens indicate this crocodile to have resembled in its
construction and size the alligator of the Mississippi, or the crocodile of the Nile,
more nearly than the Gangetic gavial. Several smaller species of crocodiles,
with concavo-convex vertebree, or vertebrae of the same construction of those
of living crocodiles, are indicated by specimens of vertebree and other bones
found in the green-sand of New Jersey and Delaware.

Another crocodilian reptile, the remains of which have been found in the
ereen-sand of New Jersey, is the Hyposaurus Rogersti, named by Professor
Owen, of London, after Professor Rogers, who submitted several vertebrae of
the animal to his inspection about fifteen years ago. This crocodile belongs to
a more ancient type of structure than the former ones, and has no near living
representative. The vertebra have their bodies dished at both extremities, or
biconcave, as in fishes, though in a much less degree. No considerable portion
of the skeleton of this species has yet been discovered, and its remains are
usually in an exceedingly friable condition. The author has had the oppor-
tunity of observing specimens of vertebra, fragments of bones of the limbs,
and teeth of about eight different individuals. The teeth are long, narrow.
and curved conical like those of the Gangetic gavial, but are more or less com-
pressed, so as to present anterior and posterior trenchant or cutting borders,
The animal did not exceed in size the alligator of the Mississippi.

Another crocodilian reptile, much larger than any of the preceding, and con-
structed after a different type, has been named Discosaurus vetustus. Only
vertebrae and some of the small bones of the limbs of the species have as yet
been found. The bodies of the vertebra have their articular ends flat, or nearly
so, and they bear a general resemblance with the corresponding portions of the
vertebre of the living cetaceous, or animals of the dolphin and whale order.
The genus is named from the articular ends of the vertebral bodies appearing
as distinct disks or plates implanted on the latter. Remains of six different in-
dividuals have been observed by the author from the green-sand of New Jersey
and from other cretaceous formations of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. A ’
few bones of a foot of this reptile from New Jersey indicate the limbs to have
been constructed as fins, so that the animal was more eminently aquatic than
the true crocodiles.

An equally large crocodilian reptile with the one last indicated, and closely
allied to it, as proved by the construction of the vertebrx, has been named
Cimoliasaurus magnus, the generic term signifying its contemporaneous age
with the chalk. The remains of this animal, consisting of a number of verte-
bre, have as yet only been discovered in the green-sand of Burlington and
Monmouth counties, New Jersey.

To conclude with the American cretaceous crocodiles, a large tooth, belong-
ing to the museum of the Smithsonian Institution, from a deposit of the Red
siver of the North, indicates a peculiar species, to which the name of Pirato-
raurus plicatus has been given. The specimen was found in association with
a number of shark teeth, of species evidently of the cretaceous epoch.

CRETACEOUS REPTILES OF THE UNITED STATES. 69

One of the most extraordinary reptiles which existed during the erctaceous
period, both in Europe and America, is the Mosasaurus, or lizard of the Meuss.
It was of gigantic size, and is most nearly related, among living reptiles, to the
comparatively puny lacertians and monitors.

A nearly entire skull, including the jaws and teeth, of the Mosasaurus cam-
peri, was discovered in 1780 in one of the subterraneous quarries of St. Peter’s
Mount at Maestricht. When found, the quarrymen gave notice of its discovery
to Dr. Hoffman, a surgeon of Maestricht, who collected fossils. Dr. Hoffman
succeeded in safely removing the skull from its position in the quarry, imbedded
in a large block of stone, and had it conveyed to his residence. The remarka-
ble specimen having attracted much attention, its fame reached the ears of a
reverend canon who owned the ground above the quarry from whence the skull
had been obtained. The canon laid claim to the specimen and applied to law
for its possession. After a troublesome suit he obtained it, much to the cost
and chagrin of Dr. Hoffman. In 1795 the army of the French republic laid
siege to Maestricht and bombarded Fort St. Peter, near which was the country
residence of the canon, where the fossil skull was preserved. The general of
the French having been informed of the circumstances relating to the fossil,
gave orders that the artillerists should avoid that particular quarter. The
canon suspecting the object of this exemption, had the skull conveyed toa place
of safety in the city. After the army obtained possession of the latter, Freicine,
the representative of the people, promised a reward of six hundred bottles of
wine for the recovery of the skull, which had the desired effect, for the follow-
ing day a dozen grenadiers bore the specimen in triumph to his house. It was
subsequently conveyed to Paris, and now forms part of the collection of the
museum of the Jardin des Plantes. The skull of the Maestricht Mosasaurus, or
Maestricht monitor, as it is also called, was nearly four feet long; the lower
jaw three feet and three-quarters. The jaws were occupied by fifty-six teeth,
besides which there were sixteen at the entrance of the throat on the ptemygoid
bones. The teeth are large; have curved conical crowns, with the surfaces sub-
divided into narrow planes; and have remarkably robust fangs inserted into
deep sockets of the jaws, with which they became firmly co-ossified.

Cuvier estimated the number of vertebrae to have been one hundred and
thirty-three, and their bodies are concavo-convex, as in living crocodiles. The
tail vertebrae are especially remarkable from their construction, being provided,
as in fishes, with a co-ossified arch and spine below the bodies as well as above.
The character of these caudal vertebree indicates the tail to have been laterally
flattened and of great comparative depth, and thus well adapted to the aquatic
habits of the animal.

Remains of a species of Mosasaurus, equally huge with the Maestricht moni-
tor, are frequently found in New Jersey in the digging of green-sand for agri-
cultural purposes, but they are usually in a very fragmentary condition. Nev-
ertheless, not a year has passed within the last thirty that isolated teeth,
vertebral fragments of jaws, and other bones, have not been turned up in the

—

70 ARTICLES REFERRED TO IN THE SECRETARY S REPORT.

diggings of the marl. Some of the specimens of teeth exceed six inches in
length, but generally they are smaller.

The teeth present considerable variety, generally having curved conical or
pyramidal crowns, frequently more or less compressed, with the surfaces in
different degrees subdivided into narrow planes or nearly or quite devoid of
them. The root or fang is cylindrical and several times the bulk of' the crown,
and is inserted in a deep socket witl which it is usually observed firmly co-os-
sified, though it may also be loose, depending on the age or state of development
of the tooth. New teeth were incessantly developed as those in use were
worn away. They made their appearance at the back part internally of the
fangs of the latter, and their fangs were gradully hollowed to accommodate
the growth of the new teeth. The crowns of the old ones were then shed to
allow the new ones to occupy their place, and after the full growth of the new
teeth their fangs co-ossified with their containing sockets. A constant succes-
sion of teeth in this manner took place during the life of the Mosasaurus.

The remains of the New Jersey Mosasaurus have been referred to a species
named M. Mitchilli, in honor of Dr. S. L. Mitchill, of New York, who first
directed attention to their existence in this country in 1818. A few fossils,
apparently of the same species, have been found in North and South Carolina.
Remains of Mosasaurus, probably of a different species from the former, have
been discovered on the Upper Missouri, of which a notice was first given by Dr.
R. Harlan, in 1834. The greater part of a skeleton was subsequently found
by Major O’Fallon, imbedded in a rock in the vicinity of Big Bend, and was
presented by him to Maximillian, Prince of Wied, who was then travelling in
western America. The prince had the specimen conveyed to Europe and pre-
sented to the Academy of Naturalists at Bonn, in the museum of which it is
now preserved. Dr. Goldfuss, who described the specimen, estimated the num-
ber of vertebree to have been one hundred and fifty-seven. We have but little
certain knowledge of the bones of the limbs of Mosasaurus; but the more
authentic specimens which have been found go to show that the animal was
provided with fins adapted to swimming.

Remains apparently of a comparatively small species of Mosasaurus, or of
a closely allied genus, have been discovered in the cretaceous formations of
Alabama and Mississippi.

Some isolated vertebre of large size, from the green-sand of New Jersey, are
supposed by Professor Owen, of London, to indicate a saurian distinct from
Mosasaurus, though allied to it, to which he has given the name of Macrosaurus
levis. Similar vertebree have been found in North Carolina. <A long, narrow,
conical tooth crown, with the surfaces subdivided into planes, from the green-
sand of Burlington county, New Jersey, and an exactly similar one from the
shores of Cape Fear river, North Carolina, indicate another reptile, probably
allied to Mosasaurus, which have been named Polygonodon vetus.

Perhaps the most extraordinary reptile yet discovered in the American creta-
ceous formations is an enormous herbivorous lizard, the Hadrosaurus Foulki.
A gentleman of Philadelphia, W. Parker Foulke, while passing the warm season

CRETACEOUS REPTILES OF THE UNITED STATES. 71

of 1858 in the pleasant little village of Haddonfield, Camden county, New
Jersey, was informed by a neighbor, Mr. J. E. Hopkins, that som2 remarkable
bones of huge size had been discovered while digging marl upon his farm about
twenty years previously. The specimens first found had been all given away
or lost. Under the expectation of finding others, Mr. Foulke employed men
to dig in the position of the old excavation, which was in a ravine through
which flowed a branch of Cooper’s creek. At the depth of nine feet numerous
bones were found in a bed of tenacious blue clay, mingled with a multitude of
fossil shells. The bones, though fractured, were otherwise well preserved, and
exhibited no appearance of being water-rolled. Indeed, the most delicate of the
accompanying shells, though decomposed, had preserved their forms so per-
fectly that it was evident the animal remains had originally rested on the soft
mud at the bottom cf a quiet sea. The bones which were obtained consisted
of twenty-eight vertebra, part of the pelvis, most of the bones of the left fore
and hinder extremities, some small fragments of jaws, and nine teeth.

The vertebrze of the neck and forepart of the dorsal region have their bodies
convex in front and concave behind, the reverse of the condition in the living
crocodiles, and in the extinct Mosasaurus. The degree of convexity and con-
cavity declines in the posterior dorsal vertebra, and in the vertebree of the loins
and tail the bodies are biconcave. The anterior caudal vertebree are the largest
of the spinal column, though not so long as most of the others. A perfect speci-
men indicates the tail to have been of enormous size—near the root about a foot
and a half in vertical diameter, and eight inches transversely. The humerus or
arm: bone is twenty-two and a half inches long, and nearly seven inches broad
at the upper part. ‘The bones of the forearm have about the same length. The
hones of the hinder extremity are especially remarkable for their huge propor-
tions, whether viewed independently or in relation with those of the fore ex-
tremity. The femur, or thigh-bone, is forty-one inches anda half long and
fifteen inches in circumference near the middle. The tibia, or shin-bone, is over
three feet long, and nearly a foot in circumference about the middle. Both the
. humerus and femur contain large medullary cavities.

The remains of Hadrosaurus exhibit a close relationship of the reptile with
the Jguanodon, a lizard of equally huge proportions and like habits, discovered
by Dr. Mantell in the next oldest formation to the cretaceous, known as the
wealden of Europe. The specimens of the Iguanodon Mantelli now form part
of the magnificent collection of the British Museum.

Hadrosaurus and Iguanodon, in proportions and habits, held the same rela-
tionship with other great extinct lizards that the bulky herbivorous pachy.
derms do among ordinary mammals. They might be viewed as the oxen
among the tigers, and insect eaters of lizards.

Among living lizards, the Iguanas of South America, and the marine
Amblyrhynchus of the Galipagos islands, are th only ones which are vege-
table feeders, and in these the sharp, serrated teeth are only adapted to cutting
the softer kinds, such as fruits, flowers, sea-weed, &c., and are not at all fit for
mastication or grinding the food,

72 ARTICLES REFERRED TO IN THE SECRETARY'S REPORT.

When Dr. Mantell first exhibited teeth of the Iguanodon, no one would
believe that they belonged to a reptile, and even Cuvier pronounced a worn
specimen to be the tooth of a rhinoceros.

The teeth of Hadrosaurus have the same general constitution as those of
Iguanodon, being adapted to the trituration of vegetable food. They are
exceedingly small in relation with the size of the animal, measuring only a
little over an inch in length, but they were numerous, and appear to have been
arranged so closely together as to form a continuous pavement at the border of
the jaws, well adapted to the crushing and comminution of vegetable sub-
stances. As the tecth in use were worn away, they were incessantly followed
by others, which also appear to have been arranged in close apposition with
one another.

Hadrosaurus was probably an amphibious reptile. Its huge, laterally flat-
tened tail was evidently adapted to swimming. The large hollows in the
interior of the arms and thigh bones would indicate a partially terrestrial habit.
The great disproportion between the fore and back parts of the body has led
to the view that when not swimming the huge reptile supported itself in a frog-
like position, though it had an additional prop in the huge tail.

Teeth nearly like those of Hadrosaurus, but referred to another reptile,
named Trachodcn, have been discovered by Dr. F. V. Hayden, in a formation
of unascertained age, though probably cretaceous, in the bad lands of the
Judith river, a tributary of the Missouri, near its source.

Other huge bones of reptiles have been discovered in the New Jersey green-
sand, of uncertain reference, but most probably of species allied to Hadrosaurus.
Several bones, from Burlington county, of a reptile of comparatively small size
with the latter, though also probably allied to it, are remarkable for their hol-
lowness, almost approaching in this respect the condition of the bones of birds.
They have been referred to a genus under the name of Celosaurus, the term
referring to the hollowness of the skeleton.

Several teeth of a large reptile, discovered in a eretaceous formation near
Bladensburg, Maryland, have been referred by Dr. Johnson, of Baltimore, to a
peculiar genus, under the name of Astrodon.

A large tooth, mingled with a number of others of sharks, from the green-
sand of Mullica Hill, Lancaster county, New J ersey, indicates a carnivorous
reptile, to which the name of Tomodon horrificus is applied. 'The tooth re-
sembles a large shark tooth, being broad, flattened conical, with sharp, cutting
borders minutely serrated. The original possessor of the tooth was no doubt
a fierce and sanguinary cotemporary of the peaceful, herb-eating Hadrosaurus.

Of turtles, the green-sand of New Jersey has furnished the fossil remains of
a number of genera and species. The fossils are, however, generally in a very
imperfect state, usually consisting of fragments of a few plates of the bony
shell. ‘The remains observed by the author appear to indicate eight species
of five genera. Of these, two are referred to Chelone, three to Emys, one to
Platemys, one to Trionyzx, and one to a peculiar genus—Bothremys. The latter
is rematkable from the jaws being provided with large funnel shaped pits, one

CRETACEOUS REPTILES OF THE UNITED STATES. 3

on each side, those of the upper jaw being opposed ,to the lower ones. It is
difficult to conjecture the use of these pits, though the author has suspected
that probably these sprung from the tooth-like processes of the horny beaks
with which the jaws of turtles are furnished. A skull, the only part yet dis-
covered which is distinctly referrible to the genus, was obtained from the green-
sand near Barnsboro’, Gloucester county, New Jersey. It bears a resemblance,
among living turtles, most nearly to the great Amazon turtle, Podocnemys.
The species is named Bothremys Cookii, in honor of Professor George H.
Cook, of Rutger’s college, New Brunswick, New Jersey, who greatly assisted
the author in procuring gpecimens for his examination, which form part of the
raaterial of the memoir.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, D. C., December 21, 1864.
Sir: I beg herewith to present a report, for 1864, of the operations which —
you have intrusted especially to my charge; mainly, those relating to ex-
changes and the collections.
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Assistant Secretary Smithsonian Institution.

_

Prof. JoserpH Henry, LL.D.,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.

EXCHANGES AND TRANSPORTATION.

The distribution of publications of the year included volume xiii of the
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, of 558 pages and seven plates;
volume v of Miscellaneous Collections, of 774 pages; and the Annual Report
of the Institution for 1862, of 450 pages ; making an aggregate of 1,782 pages
and seven plates.

As heretofore, the packages transmitted and received included all the ex-
changes between the learned institutions and men of science generally of
America and other parts of the world, the details of which are shown in the
accompanying tables. As in previous years, the Institution has to make its
grateful acknowledgments for services rendered in connexion with these opera-
tions by the Cunard, the Bremen, the Hamburg, and the Pacific Mail Steam-
ship lines; the Panama Railroad Company, the Adams Express Company,
the Hudson’s Bay Company, &e. Privileges similar to those granted heretofore
by the Adams Express Company have, during the year, been also extended
by the Harnden and the American Express Companies.

To Messrs. Hiram Barney and Simeon Draper, collectors of the port of New
York, and Mr. George Hillier, of the custom-house ; and to Mr. Samuel Hub-
bard, of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, in San Francisco, the Institu-
tion continues to be under many obligations for important aid extended in con-
nexion with its system of exchanges and transportation. Its thanks are also
due to Messrs. F. Probst & Co. of New York, and their correspondents in
Vera Cruz, Messrs. Lefimann and Gutheil, for valuable assistance in the ex-
changes with Mexico.

The regular foreign agents of the Institution—Dr. Felix Fligel, of Leipsic;
Messrs. Gustave Bossange & Co., of Paris; Mr. William Wesley, of London;
and Mr. Frederick Miiller, of Amsterdam—have continued to discharge their
duties to the full satisfaction of the Institution. |

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 75

A.
Receipts of books, Sc., by exchange in 1864.

Volumes :

CEA Te ioe 5) <5 cara ee ave aye sapien 2 ists seykeyenae wis nae

cL Tc Are A Ne aa ee NA i Nf 153

Verne oe hte ts ik ea reer ami Ee cast hae 25
825

Parts of volumes and pamphlets :

OTE A Opes Ratt iinet i oA Mes he Om a SPORE ia ep Re ena a 1,945

(TTP g (CRE Oe eth ee ie iertoe | Ce a ae eg Fgh a eS 680

PROMO A sane aes = Nari he yay charts By oka et asa Ss ae ahaiSte, siete eens 129
Pater 754
WHIP OE ENEO ECG) SH tS =. Rec ae PE RO pe A 109
PG talten stench ne see ah See emia la a ah oS ee 3, 686

B.

Table showing the statistics of exchanges of the Smithsonian Institution in 1864.

3 ° oO + (=)
Sali tye a 3 2
an) Sx Se Ok SH
Agent and country. noe es S ae °
oo Ose io) O'S =
es ce a ey eh "én
g = S| 5 PRS) 3
S 5 3 3 iS
4 A Zi ia) S
Dr. F. FLUGEL, Letpsic—
SWeGeMic. = 2 oc wcities same see ceceke-me sine 12 Ttpajy lft Se, eae Pe Se aa i SE
IN GME) a sqcb bees scodee ecbarecaee coos 8 1 Sceapodl Meteroa Be aeeos
RGIS STat Nee oS eher sce 2 cb eine cise mele arses 48 Ho [tall debe ke el | aves Pehle a i ee se
(Genie? 225 oooshe dabeds eb etoes 6546 306 OOM |e ciciate sisi eof sic stra Remi corte
Sivaizenlandemsasee er secs ass a cweleoss 36 a Oa etn Raley Are es Maal os
lsleitdiea oo2ssec7 eet goes soseeecsmase yf Ho (= a epee a (PS ete Ne a Se
AUS aly Oe dl Ae ae 25 207 8, 820
FrepD. MULLER, Amsterdam—
"TD Kevan a he cots SUP aR a gee oe edn os lec ere 10 Pia Nee em eis 2 |b 9 NEW a ce ed
olin Gee nae ao wise cece reas eee 38 A ioe ae ae ee aaa ea
She Se he A aie ae 3 27 . 780
GUSTAVE BOSSANGE & Co., Paris—
TAN COA aie. wise oclomaid see eee cmece 3 QAM | eee Gece ae eee ae cians
Iihlhy; Soe ace cacao seer eee mBeaMeConEe 50 Don eesepeeremisese tse sais s oer she
Sparse eMOLb eal 5 opener Til Loe ee erat 2 2 tell oas asec
1 GAD a ie A ene a2 12 100 4, 000
W. WESLEY, London— P
Great Britain and Ireland.... 2. ...---- 149 PAB lect oe | ee eee tes ies
og 8 RR Ee ar 13 112 4, 300
Hest On heh WONG ee arcteten ug Weve aeciee 65 100 10 100 2, 600
sy oT Yak AG A BR 843} 1,011 63 546 | 20,500

76

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

~

Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from parties in

America, for foreign distribution, in 1863.

2
5
3S
Py
ALBANY, NEW YORK. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.
New York State Library..--.....--. 6 || American Journal of Science-.------
American Oriental Society...---.---..
AMHERST, MASSACHUSETTS.
ior, OutH: Hitehéock-<G.keeee cee 10 lide sei
BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS. New York Lyceum of Natural History -
MhomasiBland ee =---1s-- ee eee ee ee
American Academy of Arts and Sci- Dr. Henrys Drapera-a-s senator eee
QNCCS 2 cs= 522s scise > See eee cise 140
SBOE IR EN SON aoa ~~ PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA.
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS.
Academy of Natural Sciences.-.....--
Library of Harvard College --...---- 19 || Entomological Society of Philadelphia-
Museum of Comparative Zoélogy..--| 550 || American Pharmaceutical Association.
NauticallWAlmannci toes ccstes cane 43 || George Wi. Dry ony |l-ss---seeseeo ase
Alexander Apassiz------..---...---- 63) PDr. SiiWe Matchell 22a ose eee
NES) | REVOKE Bopoa- Boo bese re seer to: |r: Wilcox. -c---coeeeo eee eee
PROPEL. vis Clarke ee cosets a's se cine 24
PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND.
COLUMBUS, OHIO.
State of Rhode Island. -..........----
Ohio State Agricultural Society..---- 80
ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI.
DORCHESTER, MASSACHUSETTS.
Academy-of Sciences=2-—----2s= --—=
Drehidward) Jarvis!o-o-ss-ss2<- =. -e 13
SANTA BARBARA, CALIFORNIA.
INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA.
‘ACS: Laylorieecocsnsos- 2ssseeseeeee
Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.-.-.} 12
IOWA CITY, IOWA. TORONTO, CANADA.
rote Gee Aos Ent CHS see a eee eae 17 |) Canadian Institutes: ----2 see es ese"
Observatory o..2o-m eeeenc eee ee
JACKSONVILLE, ILLINOIS.
Illinois State Hospital for Insane. ---- 60 yee a ate
JANESVILLE, WISCONSIN. United States National Observatory. --
United States Patent Office .-.....---
Institution for the Blind..........--- 41 || United States Coast Survey-.-.------.
United States Treasury Department --
MONTREAL, CANADA. Department of Agriculture ..---...--
Prot Jew Dawsolaer cece sss eset 26 oidleeenass eee sece eee nee

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from Europe, for
distribution in America, in 1864.

ALBANY, NEW YORK.

mya SitUbey. 2s ceee = ae sees
Dudley Observatory.---..----.-----
New York State Agricultural Society -
University of the State of New York.
State@liibrary, <2 os ceenctssess a Soe
Proto Lalla eeeer rae enaiaeets <<
Pranlelin B. HOUR. 62 gece ss oon

AMHERST, MASSACHUSETTS.

embers C olletens. = je S22ccaa2 seems
hres By Elitch COCK: em ats Scheie tea

ANNAPOLIS, MARYLAND.
State Library of Maryland...--..-.-
ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN.

OMisenvetonycc ss :2.0)<:55 scien
University of Michigan ...--.....-..-
1D sian h pase ccee Seco a ae = eae

AUGUSTA, MAINE.

Stateslibraryese > ssse5s seca setae ce
State Lunatic Hospital............--

AUSTIN, TEXAS.
State gaibranys'S- 222: sect ees se ©
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND.

Maryland Historical Society. -...--.-
Der ohn Gas Monmis =a en occes sone

BATON ROUGE, LOUISIANA.
SiAlepln Dra yea asec ma celonresemieeseits
BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS.

American Academy of Arts and Sci-

BNGR ees vnon ochioet Gerieloe ceeee
American Board of Commissioners for

Poreiom Missiong4: -jisjs0 =) 0'-\sia2
Mtl arce Monthivocs = 224 See oes oiee
Boston, Athenseum’..----..-<--nein-
Boston Society of Natural History. --
Bowditel Wibramyss eee eee
Geological Survey of Massachusetts -.
Massachusetts Historical Society - --.-
North American Review..----.------
New England Historic-Genealogical

ROCIONY 22 jcc anne Soe aoa dee mee

No. of
packages.

hm Cm Or 0

hm CO OT

te be OT

us

—
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Oo WWE woannee

BOSTON, MASS.—Continued.

Perkins Institute and U.S. Asylum

forABlind SoS Hiss ssse. sa tee ibe
Prison Discipline Society..---.-.-----
Pubhesaibratyecass-ee- ee ac eee
State ghibrany case eee. - eo Stee
Dri Charles Beek 2a2osssen see aes Se
AlvanaClanke.c- aicaciseere sc aetes seer
Dr: John) Dean. - << + esses see
Dr.
Colonel. JD. Graham-).2-55- -=ss ess
(RevaiMins Grouteoa2> cae seer seeeer
John tieeMotleye:- =< 2a 2ec2 cose eeee
BrOf.) Win a ROSerS: 62 8ess. 5. ses eo
CharlesiS prague: sa-.<s aac Geen= fee
Dr: DAVEE Storer she ecera stc elmer
Hons Charles)\Summerss- 42-1 se2 22=
George sicknon esses cee sa =e see
Honky Cy Winthrop:ea222-t--5-)-= +e

BRATTLEBORO’, VERMONT.
Vermont State Lunatic Asylum......
BROOKLYN, NEW YORK.

J Cl Breviooreesasisot areas see) seer
BRUNSWICK, MAINE.
‘Bowdoin Colleperie sac ca. sees)
Protea Chadboumeetass- ss s2-6
AR Oe aChard. Wee yo cai ocieitise ere sls
BUFFALO, NEW YORK.

EP EOsted?s=.2.(sisceieei see eicis chee ase
BURLINGTON, IOWA.

Iowa Historical and Genealogical In-
SUINTM@ See ees sod seo Soeeeneo: Sear

BURLINGTON, VERMONT.
University of jWemmonte 72-22 yee.
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS.

American Association for the Advance-

METtLOMISClENCC Ren a4 se ce eees Saee
‘Astronomical souriall: ssemse.. 2 35
Elanyardi@ ollemee sso <2) cone
Museum of Comparative Zodlogy- ----
Observatory of Harvard College .---.
@leveland) Abbe. s=.\2<2. Ss Geeoeeee
Tense, Ibe JMER RIA Sooo bosesoetns bes
ProfiGs 2) Bond s.6-6.- cases ecieees

No. of
packages.

homed fm

—
a Se ee Ce er ee ot Ca)

GO ht CO

CN)

78

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

D.— Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, §c.—Continued,

CAMBRIDGE, MASS.—Continued.

Prot AvA@assi 72 oats =e sea
Prot i J @lanket Stes se Sake See
Missubleltomess sea sae ewe es pee canis =
Prof. Wolcott Gibbs
Prof. Goodwin
ID PURSANGOWILG j= Sees Be eae
Dr wAtsa Gray an S20) 52 95 = seein
Prof. Henry W. Longfellow-.-..-.---
Prot, sules Mancouk<<<ca<.eeeecsteece
@harles 2. Norton: .. 2.2.2 cieciemiseee
Prob. b= Pelee: assesses eae seat
HW euinens afc ho ccenaeemieeee ee
ev ED ei aitond ss 22/3, 2ae ete artes
Je Lanodony Sipleya aaa ae teeta
Jared |S pamks easter eects aeeaetell
Prof J.0. Worcester-ss-saeoes ee =
eT Ols ea Wayans aoe reese eee

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS.

Academy of Sciences...----.-...---
Chicago ‘Historical Society.-..-.----
Mechanics’ Institute-.-...---.------
Robert senmicotticen=o~ --- J<0 saoe oe

CINCINNATI, OHIO.

American Medical College--.---.----
Historical and Philosophical Society - -
Mercantile Library
Qbsenvatory =. sees) -aeeesss eee
dig INANE DAR Abie Seca ses nar tonee

CLEVELAND, OHIO.

Dien oe) INOW DELI Yitere = (oaiateisicia ain oes
CLINTON, NEW YORK.
Hanulton Collere: ---- 2 22---1-cn~
Hamilton College Observatory - ------
TOW (OST Ris Ie Se apc oeeesosesccad
COLUMBIA, MISSOURI.
Geological Survey of Missouri--.-----

Missouri University..-.--.-----.----
State Library

COLUMBIA, PENNSYLVANIA.
Prof. Ss elaldemane ==) 352 --e cece
COLUMBUS, OHio.

Ohio Siate Board of Agriculture. -....

State Wibrary sense eran oe eee
Leo Lesquereaux.---.~--.-..--...-<--

No. of
packages.

— We -
WOOK HK VOR We De DORR ewe

ret pe OD be

moO

ht = CO

| CONCORD, NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Natural History Society-...--...----
New Hampshire Asylum for Insane. -.
tate Library

DES MOINES, IOWA.

State Ihibratyn+. 2.25. eee see
DETROIT, MICHIGAN.
Michigan State Agricultural Society --
Office of Survey of the North Ameri-

can Wakes nsacuieckee veces eee
Dr. Mappans- <2 jose. tes ae ees
DORCHESTER, MASSACHUSETTS.

Hon. Edward Everett. ..--.-- Ae Sa
Dre Nidwaxrdwdarusss-seser cae comes

| EASTON, PENNSYLVANIA.

|| Dr. Brackenridge Clemens ...-....--
Prof. James. Cofiinis.--- 3-2 sees

ERIE, PENNSYLVANIA.
Rev da: ‘Olmsteateiee: eee eee
FRANKFORT, KENTUCKY.

Geological Survey of Kentucky..--..
State Library

GAMBIER, OHIO.
Kenyon) Colleges-ccss t-te
GEORGETOWN, D. C.
Georgetown College

IDs: ah Mackalieer scat noe ee see
Dr;.cAe! Schott: 2252s 5 ae

HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA.

Pennsylvania State Lunatic Hospital -
State Library

HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT.

Historical Society of Connecticut---.
Retreat for Insane 2.55). 2cseeeee oe
State Dibranyy a5 s.5-\- 220 eee ee
Young Men’s Institute...-......-..-
Hon. Henry Barmard...-------...--

HUDSON, OHIO.
|| Western Reserve College.-..-...-- *-

No. of
packages.

mm io

26

21

= i

| ell aol

bet eet OL DD OO

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

79

D.— Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, &c.—Continued.

a
S &
hes
As
oe
INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA. NANTUCKET, MASSACHUSETTS.
Indiana Hospital for Insane-.-.-..-.-- 1 || Miss Maria Mitchell. .........-.....
State, Miprnge esos. oasacctoscaee=e 5
, NEW BRUNSWICK, NEW JERSEY.
IOWA CITY, IOWA.
Prof.’GeorgeH. Cook... 2... 050/222
Towa State University.-.------------ 13
ipa, JeGhhOis) Senoa Osea peceeosouGce 1 NEWBURG, OHIO.
JACKSON, MISSISSIPPI. Longview Asylum. 220 -..22<2<a2 0 c2--
State Library .----..--+.----------- 2 NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.
JACKSONVILLE, ILLINOIS. | American Journal of Science..-.-....
American Oriental Society. ---.-.----
State Hospital for the Insane- --.. --.- Dill) Male Collegenee 2 2220.0 veven eee ee
State Institution for the Blind.-....-.- 1 || Prof. G. J. Brush ..---.------------
i Prof. JID Dananceeen ce seats sees
JANESVILLE, WISCONSIN. HPO Mlb OOUNINE yee eee emnees eee are
| By Cy Marsh... Joes sabe ee ee ee
State Institution for the Blind... -.--- be 7 We rog Br SuMMaT tes ood. lsi aces aoa

JEFFERSON CITY, MISSOURI.

Stabe win ran yasmin eter e eee ae ie
KALAMAZOO, MICHIGAN.

*- Michigan Asylum for Insane. ..-...-..
LANSING, MICHIGAN,

State Agricultural College. .----.-.-.-
State Library

LEXINGTON, KENTUCKY.
Eastern Lunatic Asylum....--.-.---
LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS.
State ONE | eee Oe ae eon Soe
MADISON, WISCONSIN.
Histurical Society of Wisconsin..--.-.
Skandinaviske Presse-Forening.- - ----

State Library
Wisconsin State Agricultural Society -

MONTPELIER, VERMONT.

State Library

MONTREAL, CANADA.
McGill} University s==s-see macs
Natural History Society...----.-----

Drow + Dawroneeeee eee ceca
Dr. W. H. Kingston

ww

m 0 20

Profe Was NVbitie ye oe eh Mlieee
NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA.
New Orleans Academy of Sciences- --
NEWPORT, RHODE ISLAND.
United States Naval Academy. .-.---
NEW YORK, N. Y.

American Agriculturist
American Ethnological Society eee
American Geographical and Statisti-

callNociehye peetessane sae aca
American Institute
Astor Library
Farmer and .Mechanic........-. -..-
Historical Society
Mercantile Library Association. ----.
New York City Asylum, (Blackwell’s

SLAG RA Nee sGoce ate eee eee cee
New York Dental Journal. -...-.-.---
New York Institution for Blind
New York Lyceum of Natural History -
New York Prison Association
University of the City of New York...
R. Van Arsdale
Georee bancrotte-e oes ee. - <n
Dr. J. W. Diaper
Dr. Daniel Eaton
DriG cael saeeme rise set = =e
Henry Grinnell
ks Ute (Gavni@.oSe5 SooenoesouaTecer se
Mr. Harlan
1D he AKC shee Sho6 casera beosas oaec 2c
Day Wine bere sen <2) en om aie
General 'T. C. de Mosquera

Novote|
packages. |

rs
we

NeW Hee oon

~J

CD pt eet bet et CO et DD DDO HI! CD

80 REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

D.— Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, §c.—Continued.

wm mM
s & 38
° a | ) ay:
(4 = (4 &
ry oy
NEW YORK, N. Y.—Continued. | | PHILADELPHIA, PA.—Continued. |
@harleseB: (Notione-se-ssetser- eee SP Dr. Slack. o-oo ee eee eae 1
Howard. Norton\s-- 22-252. --cesm 5 3 |W Profi Steric sas sco 5e See eee ete eee | 1
Baron Osten Sacken, (consul general, G. Wyiryone= ee seeaeecnecesees 4
PRUSSIA) Iscec ree cats celjusk sam ee 3 }| Prof. "Wagner:2 4p: eee aca oe ue meees iL
DrvSehwabe---2-.=-saacccccceaeees Ii) Samuel (Ss iWihites.-ssssese se. cess 1
Dromore 2 aajsrctcierns saa see ae 1 |
DrVGeevhurber = fe... <5) ie soe sees 1 || PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY.
Dig, d@mini? Novadey Weer sees rinees 67 Se z
College of New Jersey... ---------- 1
NORTHAMPTON, MASSACHUSETTS. Ieoig J\y (CHAOS so Soo ao cece coee oe 2
Siateyuunatic Asylumeso.-s-esssse= 1 PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND.
Ite Wyant ees anc sosess soee.- soc coe. 8
Brown University .-- se eeseen ses 2
OLYMPIA, WASHINGTON TERRITORY. Butler Hospital for Insane..-o«asese-e L
Rhode Island Historical Society .----. 1
Menutonielibrany. == ae ose 4; State Wuibranyseee os. sects esee cates 5
; Prof Caswell cee -ciece selene | I
OMAHA, NEBRASKA.
| QUEBEC, CANADA.
Sinte win pranyeesen- eel ee eee 4
: Literary and Historical Society. ----- 1
OWEGO, NEW YORK.
SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA.
Oty S ainpe lige ene - aye atieeisi sis ti 2a 5
State Met bra ygeeer ee eee aera ere eioe 5
PEORIA, ILLINOIS.
SALEM, MASSACHUSE(TS.
Dr. Ey, Brendelew-eaeececseesei ete 1
Eissex: Institute =..---5-2.-seseoeeee 2 @
PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA.
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA.
Academy of Natural Sciences......-. 160
American Philosophical Society.-.---- 98 || California Academy of Natural Sci-
Central Hich Schoolss.-<s 3. tso-et 2 6 CNGES ..- - [ej;2S eee eee 33
Central High School Observatory ---. 3 Wi. BP. Blake... ssc8. aace coe eee 2
Entomological Society of Philadelphia- 3:1) Wr. -Hay6e2 a2 5- hone eee i
2 Branklin) Iinstitute.-ss-sseos2 sceenee 11
Guard Collboe”. 22. - 2s eee 1 ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI.
Historical Society of Pennsylvania. -- 4
Pennsylvania Horticultural Society - -- 1 || Deutsche Institut far Beforderung der
Pennsylvania Institution for the Blind- 2 Wassenschanten: oe ane eee 2
Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane. - 1 || St. Louis Academy of Sciences. ----- 126
Pharmaceutical Association...--..--- 6.) University ose setae seers - see eee oe 3
Philadelphia Library Company ------ 4.) Dr. G.. Engelmannmet~se2ce/2-22 228 16
Wagener Free Institute.......---..-. | Dry Alberto Chess aenreaeee es -reeeas 2
1a el ohh OF Ne pen Be = remand 32 52 6's 2 || Dr. Be B. Shumard son is - sree 8
Bling hanlkiGhases. 252 <2 see pees IMGs Cops ywallloweeeeecsic ses. sneer 1
BID Cope sis ntin oasis as .< ACSeee 3
ase oranda seep a=... Ju Saeeeenee 2 ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA.
Dr ORO MCORNIG oo os ons eee i
Dae Lio 6) ee as eso 11 || Historical Society of St. Paul....-..-. 1
es” ea Seem |e 3 SING SING, NEW YORK,
Dr, J. Aitken, Meigs: : s-.. 2.1.-..ssa 2 || Dr. George J. Fisher..----.---...2:- 2
Bachan pean aera a 1 Loch i
Wvip Race Senn eee 1 SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS.
HU). Hiobingom awe eee el 2 ey 1 || State Agricultural Society...--..-.--- 2
ID: Wie Shanswoodseatere oo eae 2) (State Wuibtary, =. 222 4sssoepeee meter = 5

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 81

D.— Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, §c.—Continued.

eine F
lee eae:
| Gre o 4
ag (Ae
ray om
|
STOCKTON, CALIFORNIA. WASHINGTON, D. C.—Continued.
State Insane Asylum.....----.------ | 2 || WiansDeparinient 522... 2.s eee eer | 3
IPOlg A Wy BSGhe 202. so eee |; 43
TAUNTON, MASSACHUSETTS. IProimombapbaind: A202 2.2 sso2eseee a
Miss)Dorothes Dixte. ote 2 ee 1
State Lunatic Hospital...-...--...-- 15 is Colonel. WitHceeimory-2c22 2252s 2
Je HWergusOn Sassen Soo 7a oe 2
TOPEKA, KANSAS. | Wheo.: Gull: 2s. esebaees Cece eae ee | 4
|} Captain J. M. Gilliss, United States |
Staten inten yes eemetae= == sects 4 NAV Yeas e see ee ee eee 28
| Dt Be Wie Paiyden 2-2): tee 1
TORONTO, CANADA. J. Hitz, (consul general, Switzerland) - 2
Prof. tubbard.. +. 25-5432. ase 1
Canadian Institute] a> -Sa)s2 a. == AN "General, Hiimphreys- 222 sss s22 === 1
@bsenvatony =.s-eesee 22 tees See DOMProt Were dulSon@s= sees se aaceears 2
Wot GmiGe iennediy: 5.2 3 eerie eee 6
TRENTON, NEW JERSEY. | Admiral. Pieces 28 saber see eee | 2
| Be Be Meeks as cccoo gee ace Saeed 1
State: Lunatic Hospital...--.:....-- | LS BERS Ray SCHOOLER EE Ee =e se erate a 8
WiateMuibrary, sass ects Ae 2s | Ad MID TOV Vier Stal SOME = amyaareiaia era es tae ui
, | © - || John Willing -.--...-.--.---..----- 1
UTICA, NEW YORK. | Broke, Winlockiass 2-122 bets eee 1
| AGL MINTS ke REE GaSe Seon SSe 1
State Lunatic Asylum-..-.-..-...--- 2
WASHINGTON, D. ¢. WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA.
Bureau of Ordnance and Hydrography - 3 || Eastern Lunatic Asylum...........- 1
Department of Agriculture .......-.- 2
inpineer | Bureaw ce Soe ee ste 1 WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS.
Ordnance Bureau: S25. cs 42 =< | 4
ibrany tof Conpress: <2... ..< 25 5-5 | 11 |) American Antiquarian Society.------. 8
SPCICLLyGOLMW abe onc sete cies etske a 6) || Catholies€ ollemeins so ese er seeeein 1
Surgeon General, United States army- 7 || State Lunatic Hospital...--........- il
United States Coast Survey-.-.-------- 30 ——
United States Naval Observatory.-..--| 92 Total of addresses.--...-.......| 299
United States Patent Office...--.---- 149 Totaliottparcels).'< 2s<..2 2262. a5. 2, 482

cee — — = Sr =

MUSEUM AND COLLECTIONS.

Although the additions to the collections have not been as numerous as in
some preceding years, their value has been considerable, as consisting princi-
pally of new material from comparatively little known portions of America.
A detailed list of donations and additions to the museum will be found at the
end of the present report. The following are the principal regions and sources
from which collections have been received. i

Arctic America.—Very large collections of mammals, birds, eggs, &c., made
in the northern parts of British America during 1863 and 1864, and filling
29 cases, reached Fort Garry iu September last, and were forwarded to St. Paul,
but arrived there after navigation had closed. ‘They are now on their way to
Washington by wagon and railroad, and are expected to arrive in a few weeks.
They embrace many species not previously received from the north, and were
collected principally by Messrs. MacFarlane, Lockhart, Jones, Sibbiston, Gau-
det, Flett, Reid, Mactavish, Gunn, &c., already well known from repeated men-
tion in previous reports. A full account of the collection will, it is hoped, be
presented in the report for 1865.

6s

82 REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

From Labrador small but interesting and instructive collections of birds, with
some eges, were received from Mr. Henry Connolly and Mr. B. Smith; and
from Moose Factory, from Mr. John MacKenzie, all of the Hudson’s Bay service.

Pacific coast of the United Staies—My. J. G. Swan, of Puget sound, has
continued his important transmissions illustrating the zodlogy and ethnology of
that region. Professor Whitney, of the geological-survey of California, has
also sent tothe Institution many specimens collected by Dr. J. G. Cooper,
zodlogist of the survey, to be identified by comparison with the Smithsonian
types.

Interior region of the United States—Assistant Surgeon Elliot Coues and
Acting Assistant Surgeon J. A. Beers, having been ordered to report to the
military commander of New Mexico for duty, left early in the spring for Santa
¥é. During their journey they made valuable collections of birds, which were
received in good condition. On reaching Santa Fé, Dr. Coues was ordered to
Fort Whipple, near Prescott, the newly established capital of Arizona, which
he reached in August, and where he has been diligently engaged, in the inter-
vals of his official duties, in exploring the natural history of that interesting
and little-known region. The results of his labors up to the beginning of No-
vember, filling three boxes, have reached San Francisco, and have been ship-
ped to the Institution, where they may be expected shortly to arrive. Dr. Beers
has been stationed at Fort: Goodwin, on the Gila, and is also making collections
there, none of which, however. have yet been received.

In April last, Acting Assistant Surgeon R. Hitz left Washington for Fort
Laramie, to serve as surgeon to a projected western expedition from that post,
under Colonel Collins. During his term of service. Dr. Hitz made large col-
lections of specimens, principally on Laramie Peak, which have not yet arrived,
owing to the freezing up, in the Missouri river, of the steamboat upon which
they had been shipped.

In May last, Captain John Feilner, 1st United States cavalry, was detailed
to accompany the expedition of General Sully, fitted out to control the Sioux
Indians of the Upper Missouri, and during his stay at Sioux City, in the month
of May, collected and forwarded a valuable collection of birds. He then pro-
ceeded to Fort Rice, a new post at the mouth of Cannon-ball river, and after-
wards started with the command on the westward expedition. On the 30th of
June, when about 100 miles from Fort Rice, Captain Feilner was ambushed
by hostile Indians and mortally wounded, surviving only afew hours. In this
untimely death of Captain Feilner the Institution loses one of its most valued
correspondents. Many previous Reports bear testimony to the services he has
rendered to science by his numerous collections of specimens in natural history,
prepared with unusual skill, and made in the—till then—unknown regions
about Fort Crook, California.

Eastern United States —Extensive collections of eggs have been received
from Dr. William Wood, of Connecticut, Mr. J. W. Tolman, of Illinois, and
Dr. Hoy, of Wisconsin. Dr. I’. V. Hayden and Dr. Craven have furnished
series illustrating the invertebrate fauna of the coast of South Carolina. Cap-
tain William Holden, of the quartermaster’s department, supplied a large num-
ber of serpents and other reptiles from the vicinity of Newbern, North Carolina.

Meaico—The most important collections received from Mexico, during the
year, have been those of Mr. Xantus. Mention was made in a previous report
of his operations about Colima and Manzanillo and vicinity, and of specimens
received from him. ‘The remainder of the collections of 1863 were received in
1864, and filled 28 boxes, (two others still deficient,) consisting of a general
assortment of the land and aquatic animals, numerous minerals, and a few
plants of the region investigated, and embracing much that is new to science.

These collections were due early in the year, but were detained several
months in Manzanillo by the blockade of the port by the French; and were

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY. $3

finally brought to Panama on the United States steamer Narragansett, and de-
livered to the Panama Railroad Company, by the kindness of Commander 8. E.
Woodworth, United States navy.

Several collections of birds and their eggs from the vicinity of Mazatlan
have been presented by Colonel A. J. Grayson, an old correspondent of the
Institution. These have provedof muchinterest, as showing an extension nortk-
ward, along the coast, of the Central American fauna, of much greater extent
than formerly supposed. Colonel Grayson is at present engaged in exploring
the ornithology of the large islands, Three Marias, &c., off the coast of Mexico,
and will doubtless make some interesting discoveries.

Additional collections of birds and other animals, as well as of plants, have
been received from Dr. Charles Sartorius, of Mirador, a gentleman to whom the
Institution already owes so much material relative to the natural history of
Mexico. Collections of birds, mammals and reptiles, in continuation of pre-
vious ones, have also been presented by Dr. Sumichrast, of Orizaba.

Dr. H. Berendt, long resident in Tabasco, visited the United States early in
the year, bringing with him valuable collections of natural history for the In-
stitution. These consisted principally of reptiles, among them a complete
series of the Chelonia, found near ‘Tabasco.

At the present time, an extensive exploration of the physical and natural
history of Yucatan is in progress, of which the Institution expects some of the
results. It is under the direction of Seftor Salazar y Llarregui, well known as
former Mexican commissioner of the United States and Mexican boundary
survey. Dr. Arthur Schott, of whom frequent mention has been made in pre-
vious reports, as naturalist of the United States and Mexican boundary survey,
Lieutenant Michler’s survey of the Atrato river, &c., has been attached, in a
similar capacity, to the Yucatan survey.

Central America—An extensive and most important series of birds of Gua-
temala has been received from Mr. Osbert Salvin, of London, types of the
report made on the Guatemalan collections by himself and Mr. F. Godman.
A valuable collection of Costa Rican birds has keen received from Dr. A. von
Frantzius, already referred to in previous reports; and many specimens, also,
from Mr. J. Carmiol; the two series embracing an unusual proportion of new
and rare species.

From Captain J. M. Dow additional collections of birds of the coast region
of Central America have been received ; and several collections made by Mr.
Frederick Hicks have been submitted to my examination.

South America —Specimens of birds from Bogota have been presented by
Mr. J. Krider, Mr. J. Akhurst, and Mr. J. H. Roome. Additional cellections
of birds of Ecuador, of much value, have been received from Hen. J. B.
Buckalew and Prof. W. Jameson; and, also, quite 2 number from Mr. Akhurst.
A collection of birds from the vicinity*of La Paz, Bolivia, made and presented
by Hon. D. K. Cartter, has proved of the greatest interest, embracing, among
other novelties, two new hummingbirds. A collection of woods from Surinans
has been received from Mr. Henry Sawyer.

West Indies —Additional collections from Mr. W.'T. March, of Jamaica, and
from Mr. Charles Wright, Mr. N. H. Bishop, and Dr. F. Gundlach, of Cuba,
have tended to make the Smithsonian series of birds from these islands still
more complete than heretofore. A valuable collection of shells of Jamaica has
also been received from Mr. March, and of Cuba from Mr. Wright.

A series of birds of Nassau, New Providence, presented by Lieutenant Fitz-
gerald, of the British army, included several species new to the collection.

In addition to the collections of birds referred to above, as received from
particular regions, Mr. Ed. Verreaux, of Paris, has presented, through the
instrumentality of Mr. Jules P. Verreaux, the eminent ornithologist, a large
number of species from Mexico, Central and South America, embracing many

84 REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

valuable types, and of inestimable service in prosecuting the study of Middle
and South American birds, only equalled in this respect by the donations of
Mr. Salvin.

As might be expected from the plan of operations of the Institution, the
collections received from Europe and the rest of the Old World, during the year,
are much inferior in number and extent to those from America. Among these,
however, should be especially mentioned a series of Scandinavian Ptarmigans
and of rare northern birds, from Prof, ©. Sundevall, of Stockholm; and of rare
European eges, from the Royal Artillery Institution, of Woolwich; Prof. Hai-
dinger and Prof. Hérnes, on the part of the K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt, in
eonjunction with the Imperial Mineralogical Museum of Vienna, have presented
an extensive series of fossils of the tertiary basin of Vienna. The K. Ober-
Bergamt, of Breslau, has contributed a very useful series of minerals and mining
products, illustrating the metallurgy of the royal mining establishment of Silesia.

INVESTIGATION, IDENTIFICATION, AND ENTERING OF COLLECTIONS.

Steady progress has been made, during the year, in the determination and
labelling of the collections of the Institution, and the setting aside of the
duplicates, by the different gentlemen to whom specimens have been intrusted
for the purpose. I have, myself, been engaged, at moments not otherwise
occupied, in reviewing the entire collection of birds of America, both north
and south, in charge of the Institution, and in preparing a descriptive catalogue
for publication in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Of this review
about one hundred and fifty pages have been printed, and an additional por-
tion is in press. I am indebted to several gentlemen for important aid in ear-
rying out this undertaking, by the loan of specimens necessary for comparison ;
especially to Mr. George N. Lawrence, of New York; Mr. John Cassin, of
Philadelphia; Dr. Samuel Cabot, jr., of Boston; and Messrs. Edward and
Alfred Newton and Mr. O. Salvin, of England.

Mr. W. S. Morgan, of Washington, has been systematically engaged in
making a series of drawings of all the varieties of authenticated species of
North American eggs in the collection, to be used in preparing the illustrations
to Dr. Brewer’s work on North American Odlogy.

The following table shows the amount of work done, during the year, in the
way of registering the collections.

Table showing the total number of entries on the record-books of the Smithso-
nian Collections at the end of the years 1863 and 1864.

1863. 1864.
Silenneing, Gavalystealiis. S2P Cs Se 5 AS ose booeee aoun acces peageron bees 5, 614 6, 275
Mammalgecre «ae sie tec oo Se a tre ete tenet els oie Cla nine ne ee ee 7,175 7, 782
BIG. Sse See ns ses = ee eR ee 5506 H5s00 asepoueDeese sesbes ode ees. fens 31,800 | 35,111
Lgjilas = SBA SESS aap eeos seesee sa5cs6 coesesereses Sos cenccdsess sos) 6, 325 6, 543
Wish@s?= c=: 422-25 = -- 2 eb eee a cen noe ee wee ee = | 5,075 5, 404
DOOR ON [SOR A sees eae oes ose sos ansis sor cueU se bose co Soc ape cba 7,279 8, 700
Cirustacesm see sect aie Sew etree ee folie oie ele nine eel 1, 287 1, 287
Richie joo santas SeSe RSE SB ses Stes asses sbociese 266 5252 sodoccSeee 10,450 | 10,525
TRAGIC c= ce ods dca Saheb soees Jo) ceaueadeons Geecoatbds popseace 2,714 2,725
TSU ng gaps Aad See Se Bn bo Sees 55555, ee see soduese4 sacsemmoce 2, 550 5, 487
JibieEikpee sa Sess cHoM ee cQpead one sshd pSnoed Ge Scos csaead case sane 4,476 4, 925
Idi mA oem Tes a6 eS oaes Saas Sooo Sos6 Soesor ses sso coesssgese 875 1, 048

STON S584 assed ode seosaod stot Soenen ooedesdc Ssunccsabsdses 110 110

e
REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 85

If to the above we add the mollusea catalogued, by Mr. Carpenter, the record
of which, filling an entire volume, is still in his hands, it will bring the total
number of entries fully up to 100,000. As in all departments, excepting those
of mammals, birds, and osteology, each entry may include a large number of
specimens, it is a fair allowance to estimate an average throughout of five te
each number, making half a million of objects catalogued (probably many
more) and marked by permanent labels or figures. 'The average number of
entries for the twelve years during which the system has been continued will
thus exceed 8,000.

DISTRIBUTION OF DUPLICATES.

A very large number of specimens have been issued from the duplicate stores
of the Institution, in 1864, both to public museums at home and abroad, and
to gentlemen requiring them for special investigations. The following table
exhibits the statistics of distribution as far as they could be reduced te
figures :

Species. | Specimens.
|

Wiaamiialohets comras terse colts SoM. Jap ob ts halts ee ot ees ee too 168 665
pind See Sees ois etsy mise Sicilia) sb ehe ae nit be Metsicias adleclets stents | 1, 490 2, 708
FUE. Y 5k Fe a Ra OR RE Ae Eo pean ad inv Arp) Gee eR ern le | 431 1, 641
NGM coe sco ccas Heeemecpescosase socsea conse scahseesssc cases | 51 69
RAMI LS eRe sie nears) cnnie orto ce oa Malate aoe tol oe aepeine eis AME a Se *600 *2, 100
Owrsiaceans: Ee hs Sess. She Aeris See ae ei Ee oe ee are Cel 622
Maxine;invertebrates menerall ya: cece oe tee. valde ein ciccoe 1,072 3, 798
CRishs OF GRR LS 2 Bae ood Cb eeeooeneea cor ce aoa See deeesee 58 58
1 RCO ERS pee se ee ay eNO Co ee BEERS ee eee *500 *1, 000
WMI SOWA oo ees seein an bass bepessddeosd Keoe Eeeedoae: *360 3, 600

SRO reat pont eeee Me RSs tosioeh. sila co oeteateneajagat. 20050 $, 807 16, 461

The estimate, although somewhat approximate, is under the true amount
of material distributed, rather than in excess. Mvery specimen included in it
was carefully and authentically labelled before being issued. Of the birds
referred to, 360 were mounted duplicates of the United States Exploring Hx-
pedition, supplied to the Boston Society of Natural History and the Philadelphia
Academy of Natural Sciences.

PRESENT CONDITION OF THE MUSEUM.

The specimens exhibited in the museum are all, apparently, in good condi-
tion, free from insects, and nearly all properly identified and labelled. The
series of fishes has been removed from the rooms under the art-gallery and
placed in the northwest gallery of the museum hall, arranged for their recep-
tion. A series of casts of interesting Mexican masks and other antiquities, from
originals in the museum of the American Philosophical Society, has been
placed in the eastern end of the northeast gallery.

A large portion of the collections of the exploring expedision and Western
American shells, intrusted to Mr. Carpenter for determination, has been re-
turned by him, but they remain in the cases in which they arrived until the
rest shall have been received, by request of Mr. Carpenter.

* Approximate number.

®
86 ; REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY,

LIST OF DONATIONS 'TO 'THE MUSEUM DURING 1864.

—Box of fossils, Mount Pleasant, Iowa.
Abert, Thayer.—Your cases of minerals, (deposited.)
Adams, W. H.—Indian arrow-head from Illinois.
Akhurst, J—Coliection of birds of New Granada and cae Skins of birds
of Ecuador.
Aldrich, T.—Shells and insects from New York.
Andrews, Prof. 1. B.—Meteorite from Ohio ; alcoholic specimens, &c.
Austin, E. P.—IWnsects from Michigan.
Babcock, A. L.—Skins of birds ion Massachusetts.
Beebe, E. H.—Minerals from Galena, Illinois.
Beers, Dr. H. A—Collection of birds from Kansas and New Mexico.
Berendt, Dr. H.—Spcecimens of Physclla Berendtii from Mexico. Reptiles,
imsects, medicinal plants, &c., from Tabasco, Mexico.
Berthoud, Lieutenant E. T—TYooth of mastodon from Kansas.
Bertineau, Charles —Ammonites and teeth of sharks and saurians from
Pembina river.
Bishop, N. H—Box of birds from Remedios.
Blake, J. S—¥our boxes of gold and “silver ores from Agua Blanca, Mexico.
Bland, Wena —Box of W eat Indian shells.
Boardman, G. A —Skins of birds; nest of raven from New Brunswick.
Brawner, I. C-—Specimen of monstrosity.
Breslau, K. Ober Berg-Amt.—Five boxes of minerals and metallurgical
specimens from the royal | mining establishment in Silesia.
Buchner, Dr. O.—Six boxes of models of German fungi.
Buchalew, Hon. C. R.—Skins of birds from Eeuador.
Campjield, H—Surgical knife used in the revolutionary war.
Carmiol, Juan wo boxes of birds and mammals from Central Costa
Rica.
Carpenter, W. T.—Collection of Australian polyzoa.
Cartter, Hon. D. K.—Series of birds from La Paz, Bolivia.
Christiania, Ethnological Museum of —Ulusirations of Lapland ethnology.
Collins, Colonel W. O.—Skins of Leucosticte t ephrocotis and Lepus Town-
sendii, Kort Laramie.
Connolly, Henry.—Box of birds from Labrador.
Cooper, Dr. J. G.—Skull of Vulpes littoralis, San Nicolsar island, California.
Cope, Prof. E. D—Box of fossil ganoid fishes from England.
Cosgrove, Lawrence.—lron pyrites from Fort Scott, Dis frie of Columbia.
OCoues, Dr. Elliot —Two boxes of birds from Kansas and New Mexico.
Craven, Dr—Box of mollusea from Hilton Head.
Dail, W—Insects and shells of Massachuseits.
Davis, H.—Box of fresh-water shells of Iowa.
Day, H. H.—Silver ores from the Savage mine, Virginia city.
Dobson, W.—Arrow-heads, Crown Point, New York,
Dold, Andres.—TVooth of elephant, Las Vegas, New Mexico.
Dow, Captain J. M—Box ot birds from Central America. Skin of Jaguar,
Central America.
Fitzgerald, Lieutenant C. L.—Birds and shells of the Bahama islands.
Flini, Dr. Earl.—Orthopterous insect from Nicaragua.
Foot, Hon. S—Octopus from Fort Pickens; collected by Captain H. A.
Smalley. Ores of iron from Vermont.
Foster, Colonel J. We—Cloth from an ancient mound in Ohio.
Frantzius, Dr. A. von.—Series of birds of Central Costa Rica.
Galody, Hon. M.—Insects and crabs from Dominica.

'
.

eee ee ee

a

a ge

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 87

Getter, O. H—Specimen of Reduvius.

Gill, Theodore —Skins of humming birds, reptiles, shells, &e., West Indies.

Gilpin, Dr. J. B—Shrews and mice of Nova Scotia, in alcohol. ,

Grayson, Colonel A. J—Collection of birds and eggs from vicinity of Ma-
zatlan.

Gundlach, Dr. J—Mounted birds from Cuba.

Haidinger, Prof. W.—See Vienna.

Hall, John H—Specimens of Brucite from Lancaster county, Pennsylvania.

Hayden, Dr. F. V—Three boxes of alcoholic collections from Beaufort,
South Carolina.

Hepburn, James—Box of birds from British America.

Heramb, Carl.—Shot pouch of eel skin from Norway.

Holden, Captain W.—Three kegs of serpents from Newbern, North Caro-
lina.

Hiornes, Dr—See Vienna.

Hoy, Dr. P. R.—Box, nest and eggs, Wisconsin.

Jameson, Prof. W.—Skins of Tetragonops rhamphastinus and Merulaxis
orthonyx and other birds from Ecuador.

Jouett, U. S. N., Captain J. H.—S8kin of alligator gar.

Kreft, Dr. G.—Scale of Osteoglossoid fish, collected in Australia by Dr. Leich-
hardt.

Krider, John —Skins of South American birds. Six skins of birds from
Bogota.

Lincoln, C. D—Birds’ eggs from Taunton.

Lippincott, B—Mosses and beaver-tail from Oregon.

Mackenzie, John.—Box of birds from Moose Factory.

March, W. T.—Shells, with skins and eggs of birds from Jamaica.

Maximilian, Prince of Wied.—Box of European birds.

Meigs, Major General M. C—Timber bored by Teredo.

Merrit, B. A—Shells, lichens, and skin of Arvicola pinctorum from New
York.

Odell, Franklin.—Indian relics and quills of porcupines from New Hamp-
shire.

Paine, C. S—Skin of albino mouse and of Arvicola albo-rufescens (2) from
Vermont. Skins of Bonaparte’s gull, and nest of Turdus pallasti.

Palmer, Dr. E.—Box of plants, alcoholic specimens, &c., from Kansas.
Three boxes of minerals, plants, zodlogical specimens, Colorado Territory.

Parkinson, D. F.—Six Indian skulls from California.

Pease, W. H—Two boxes of Sandwich island shells.

Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.-—Duplicates of South American
birds.

Poole, Henry—Shells and birds’ eggs, Cape Breton.

Prentiss, Dr. D. W.—Birds of Hilton Head. South Carolina. Nest of
marsh wren.

Roome, J. H—Collection of Bogotan birds.

Rowell, Rev. J—Box of California shells.

Saemann, L.—Series of specimens of rocks.

Samuels, H. A—liges of summer duck and of hooded merganser. Nests of
dirds from Maine.

Sartorius, Dr—Birds, plants, and shells from Mirador, Mexico.

Sawyer, Henry —One hundred species of wood from Dutch Guiana.

Shimer, Henry—bBirds from Illinois.

Shute, James G.—Nest and eggs of Dendroica pinus.

Siler, Andrew L.—Fossil wood, shells, and Indian curiosities, Utah.

Simpson, George B.—Copper spear-head and other relies.

Smalley, Captain H. A.—Octopus from Fort Pickens, Florida.

88 REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

Smith, B—Box of birds from Labrador.

Sprague, E. T—Minerals from Essex county, New York.

Stimpson, Dr. W.—Zodlogical collections from Beesley’s Point.

Strong, C.—Silver ores from the Gould & Curry mine, Virginia city.

Sumichrast, Prof. F.—Collection of vertebrata from Mexico.

Sundevall, Prof-—Skins of birds of Sweden.

Scott, Ansel —Indian relies.

Swan, Jas. G.—TVhree boxes zodlogical collections and Indian curiosities
from Puget Sound.

Taylor, A. S.—Grasshoppers from California.

Thomson, J. H— Motella caudacuta from New Bedford. Mollusca from the
coast of Massachusetts. 4

Tolman, J. W.—Collection of eggs from Illinois.

Velie, Dr. J. W—Egeg of Mergus cucullatus and Ectopistes migratoria.

Verreaux, Edward—Vhree hundred specimens of birds and ten skins of
mammals from Central and South America.

Vienna Geologisches Reichsanstalt, and the Imperial Mineralogical Mu-
seum.—Six hundred species of tertiary fossils of the Vienna basin, furnished by
Prof. Haidinger and Prof. Hirnes.

Zienna Kais. Mineralogisches Museum.—See Geologisches Reichsanstalt.

Walker, R. L.—Myriapoda from Alleghany County, Pennsylvania.

Warren, Major General G. K.—Skin of Actodromas macuata, Petersburg.

Winslow, Dr. C. F—Skin of Daption capensis, Peru.

Wharton, Thomas.—Ores of Nickel, nickel and copper coins, &c.

Whitney, Prof. J. D—Zoidlogical collections of Geological Survey of Cali-
fornia. (Deposited.)

Wood, Dr. W.—Box of eggs from Connecticut.

Woolwich, Royal Artillery Institution —LKggs of European birds.

Wright, Charles —Birds and shells of Cuba. Box of Cuban land shells.

Xantus, J.—Numerous boxes zodlogical collections, Manzanillo, Colima,
Mexico.

Young, Prof. C. A—Specimen of Parmellee Meteorite of February 28, 1858,
and of the Meteorite of New Concord, Guernsey county, Ohio, May 1, 1860.

LIST OF FOREIGN INSTITUTIONS

FROM WHICH

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY HAVE BEEN RECEIVED IN EXCHANGE.
DURING THE YEARS 1860-64.

SWEDEN.

Gétheborg.—Kongliga Vetenskaps-och Vitterhets-Samhialle - .....--- P= asercskinshtk.d 5

nih AeOne ipa mens eteh Ia 48 ties ss nis Lin eke lect awaelue cadeee 206.

Stockholm.—Bureau Central de Statistique de Suéde -....-.----..--.-.-----.------ 5D
Ronelion V erenskaps-Akademien:. 0 222)/4. ois. od vo butse es aoe. ok 46
Kongliga Vitterhets-Historie-och Antiquitets-Akademien....-.-.............- 16
Pus MOUe seis ae Hace. Poco aha. ee ea Sey ey oid ose ee ee 55

Dysula——Konpliga, Vetenskaps-Societeten 5.22... 0 Jos Se0 4s. .cie. 1. Ste tecaeeeded 34
Pinmeranei, Observyatowet :. £424.54... cteia theo as isu eden co ee oeioce soe 4

NORWAY.

Oe OL ONS USO DE 3. Se i a aha rhe rineh Sacie anit aii eet a bso tere 8

Christiania.—Forening til Norske Fortidsmindesmerkers Bevaring --...-.--.-.----- 8
RonoehredNorske, Wimiversites. << ccstyadmehapocwis ce toate see oe ais sae 196.
MOLWmerian GOVErMNent QC. wr ito UE se aise ties ok clam dere t ain nnetio de aes 10
OUTS EIS UST TET SNe pe ee ee ae es U8 ae ERE Ne te Ae eee rece eee 4
pny eiGerapniske HOTeniN is 3 sc beet ad cia ee antes ek dase ee ee 8
Midensiraps Nels ikap. u Cir santero steps ole Sica evn inia eee ahaa ssaecns 4

ICELAND.
neyepecik.—lslands Stiltishokasaim -.0- 22. 202. 5.22 AL te 35
DENMARK.

Kjoébenhavn, (Copenhagen.)—Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes-Selskab-........--- 27
Koagelize Landhnunsholdnings-Selakab ,- <7 2/002 -0215-5 are oe ected eee 14
Kongelice Nordiske, Oldskritt-Selskabs i021. 205 oe nto telsnnec- abe i wee ee 29
Naturhistoriskeslioneninoe 2) eyo tae setae eh ete. Fe ae 4
Micshettiiion Vieierinser sso 42 8 je Sgk tee aah= Jes Sete Aalivs ox = 28 Seg 24.

RUSSIA,

Worpot.—Woerpater Naturforscher Gesellschaft: 2 2.2. 06s o- -oss.4- 55. sfc es esos = 8 14
GelehrieeE: stumsche Gesellschattmes= eects cetos ete cee oc se.cose cokes eee 13

Belsingfors.—Finske Laikare Saliskapet --------25-- .=-=--5-26 a020----e5e0 eset 9
Svensier Seieisenabiand Nesovenes | Eee oe eae oa) Ee ee ee eee ee ee 20

engined Nea ai UbaihO SiG be oo Sok ocos e Same OBeA noe bes dae see oneles 14

Moskwa, (Moscow. )—Imperat. Obshtshestvo Istorii i Drevnostei Rossiskih pri Mos-

lsovekom: UU ntversitietpesi 2). aa. Pacisatign dee uneeeeseel. 5
Secieté Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou....-..- 222-2222. ---2-.0-4-- 21

Ue ——O DSCLYALOIne Mh PSLieltss vytee ote yey akc < fol apo oie eos Seysioes sae ke 24

‘Reralz—Lsthiandische, litteramsche Gesellschattes.- -..-..--< -o5255-402---.-- oc lee 8

Riga.——Gesellschaft fur Geschichte und, Alterthumskunde der Russischen Ostsee

IPO MIMAGIN Swe 2 Soo lose ate oo cUsas se nes beeeou cows so coor es aueeEe Sonne 26
BOE SG H TOES MET OU 0 cms Someta ous s d= inte eee ee tee skeet ML 8 24

St. Petersburg.—Bibliothek der Evangelischen Gemeinden..........-.-.-..-.----- 1
Gidrographitsheskii Departament Morskago Ministerstva..........-.-...-.-- 38
Commission, lmiperiaic Archéatopiques: 7 <4 2'2¢ mea Peo h/tS enw s meni ggeene 7
bre peterpan ey aN see ee o man a ae ecm a ala 3 Saeis aS ee 111
Imper. Arkheologitcherskoje Obshishestvo ....--------+2-- -.---+ 2020020255 2
Impereubluchnaja, biplietelkow. 2/202. 22.) 5 e-ch ne ee «seem acide Soeee 2
Imperat. Russkoe Geographitsheskoe Obshtshestvo-.....-...---...---.....-- 37

Imperat. Volnoe Ekonomitsheskoe Obshishestvo ..-....-.----.-.- +222 sccece 99

90 DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Kais,, Pharmaceutische Gesellschaft. {i202 2 UO a ea Beet UU
Kais. Kuss.-Mineralogisché Geselisehatt *. 22) 2 2U5 22 fe sees Oo aines
Morskoi-Outehenoi-Comitets 9 2282 25.02 SAIS ee a eee 8) SL BO
Morskoje*Ministerst vor. ar Boe SA Ie eho SO A SA OO
Nikolai: Haupt-Stermwarter Sah ee os ee ee eee
Shtab-Korpussa gorylh Ineeneroft:- 55-244 too ee a ak IG
Warschau, (Warsaw.)—Biblioteka Towarzystiva Rolnierego Krolestiva Polskiego- -.

DE NEDERLANDEN, (HOLLAND. )

Amsterdam, (Noord-Holland. )—Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen.--.- ----
Genootschap ter Bevordering der Genees-en Heelkunde - ...-.-..------------
Koninklijk Zoologisch Genootschap ‘‘ Natura Artis Magistra’...........----
stadsbibliotheelk <4. 222-222 - s2scc0creccieer serge Ge Deulen Wanebose Pen eIAS
Maatschappy: Tot Bevordering der Bouwkunst --- ....-.-.-.-. .2----------
Vereeniging voor Volksvlijt-c24j-<: ssccidhutiesael-wsle suceed aeters eee
Wiskundig Genootschap: ‘‘Een onvermoeide Arbeid komt alles te boven’’--.

Arnhem, (Gelderland. )—Genootschap ‘‘'Tot Nut en Vergenoegen”.....-.-.--------

Delft, (Zuid-Holland, )—Koniuklijk Instituut van Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde van

; Neder]. ndié 420 2) deniocise ahs io sos aS eels

Deventer, (Overyssel.)—Openbare,Bibliotheek. <5) >.: sadse escent ge. ele eee ee

s’Gravenhage, (The Hague, ) ( Zuid-Holland.)—Government of the Netherlands... ---
Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs.. 2-2. .222- 222 ask eee ee REE:
Nederlandsche Entomologische Vereeniging ..---..---0-+-222+-+2-s-2-2-06-

Groningen (Groningen.)—Academia Groningana......---.--.---- 22. -22----e ones
Genootschap te Groningen pro excolendo Jure Patrio-.-....-.-....--.------
Genootschap ter Bevordering der Natuurkundig Wetenschappen .-.-.-..-----

Haarlem, ( Noord-Holland.)—Holiandsche Maatschappij der Wetenschappen .--.- --- -
Nederlandsche Maatschappij ter Bevordering van Nijverheid .-...---.-.----.
Mmusée: Teyler's. /222ic222 12 ote aes See sa bgede see Baht pe eee ee a eee

Hertogenbosch, (Noord-Brabant.)—Provinciaal Genootschap van Kunsten en Weten-

schappen in Noord-Brabant.’....-.-.-------+--

Leeuwarden, (Friesland. )—\riesch Genootschap van Geschied-oudheid-en taalkunde-

Leiden, (Zuid-Holland. )—Academia Lugduno-Batava ...-.-----------------+---++
Maatschappij der Nederlandsche Letterkunde ..---...---.-.---..-----------
Rijk’s Museum van Natuurlijke Geschiedenis. ....-..-...--.-------4--se-+
Stelpiaenseh Mepaat). ..-22.2-- eaten bere ses tagdosd ka elaestl--4 seqeicpes

Middelburg, (Zeeland. )—Zeeuwsch Genootschap der Wetenschappen..-.-.----------

Rotterdam, (Zuid-Holland. )—Bataatsch Genootschap der Proefondervindelijke Wijs-

begeerte ... 3255-554 sippigeckn tack aot saute

Utrecht, (Utrecht.)—Academia Rheno-Trajectina ...-.--...-------22+----<---e+s--
Historisch, Genooisthap, .ititedicuce 3. el stise, J iby beceeeteea tia enue Laas
Koninklijk Nederlandsch Meteorologisch Instituut ...---..-----------------
Obsenvatouumie sacoe tee nes ose nees ees tin EAS Ye Sei Nceloe Sean seb acseet a aeee
Provinciaal Utrechtsch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen --.-.----

Zwolle, (Overyssel.)—Overysselsche Vereeniging tot Outwikkeling van Provinciale

Wiel Waaite 2.5 ecm a5 theater Saute ey Rey ere ea oeic o eee
Vereeniging tot beoefening van Overysselsch Regt en Geschiedenis -....-----

GERMANY, INCLUDING AUSTRIA AND PRUSSIA.

Weutsche? Ornithologen-Gesellschatiys-—5-eo--- sees eee see eee ae seer eases
Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte_.------- ein asts Maisenaie aad
Agram, (Austria.)—Redaction der Gospodarske List..--.....--.-----------------
Altenburg, (Saxe-Altenburg. )—Geschichts- und Alterthumsforschende Gesellschaft. - -
Naturforschende Gesellschaft des Osterlandes--...-..-.-----2--------------
Ansbach, ( Bavaria.)—Historischer Verein in Mittelfranken .......----.-----------
Augsburg, (Bavaria.)—Historischer Verein fur Schwaben und Neuburg..---.---.---
Landwirthsch. Verein von Schwaben und Neuburg. ......:-----------------
Naturhistorischer Verein. . saceme sere sac fc acts Dee eee esos Serie oa ee
Redaction der Wochenschrift fur Thierheilkunde und Viehzucht-.-----.-----
Bamberg, (Bavaria.)—Naturtorschende Gesellschaft.........---------------------
Bendorf, (Prussia.)—Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Psychiatrie und gerichtliche Psycho-
Keyedtey ae Sse te Soe od 202 OLSEN eae re See ares, te cies Ste rente: os erste pe Seen
Berlin, (Prussia. )—Seine Majestait der, Konie, von Preussem = 3_)-(-2+)- -2—--ga2 emcee
KonigentMlizabetlincs os. G omc eet ie ee eyesore omen ames tie hee ae
Acclimatisations-Verein fur die Preuss. Staaten ......---..--..-.-----------
Central Verein fur das Wohl der arbeitenden Klassen .....----.------------
Deutsche Geolooische Gesellschattes =.= —- eee anne ee ieee aor eee
Entormologischier Verein s: Le 2 tae ie ee acetone eee

Geselischatie tur lire kin de ene = ee ee eae eee eg ee

IX

ee
WOH ORS

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Konigliches Landes-Oeconomie-Collegium -.-.......-...-.---.--2---2-----
Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften. ..-..-.--..--.--------
Koniglich Preussischer Generalstab der Armee. .- -2-- 4:2-)-22< 2402/05 st-5-
Koniglich Preussische Technische Bau-Deputation -....-..----..----.-..---
ianysikalische Gesellschatt. Ses on iste) ade Noein cs, epote ape peers OP alah rd oe
Poyeeremistene Axesellsehatt i222 -% ose) ela quetersst das deanery ahwawatale tee
Redaction des Landwirthschaftlichen Centralblatt fur Deutschland.........--
Redaction des Landwirthschaftl. Zeitung fur Nord- und Mittel-Deutschland. -.
Redaction des Statistischen Central-Archivs, (Dr. O. Hubner)..........----.
Suatisticches. Une aU cme meh eee ne cesteyep eae eh Cle h a ae Ea ih es ae
SienosraphigchemaVierein. ee ee ale ee as Sou ATs ee Sa ue) Miae
Umiversitats-Stemywarte Qu Hayy Ice 4 sesh has TA Tee 2d, GR IRIs
Verein Deutscher Ingenieureit G20 2. oo eu ae
WMerein fur. isenbahnicundeeccs tee senaca= ae ee yee ee cee ee
Verein zur Beforderune des Gartenbaties-+.5.2 5222 (222-2 a2 222. ob le.
Verein zur Beforderung des Gewerbefleisses in Preussen ....---.--.---------
Bernburg, (Anhalt.)\—Norddeutscher Apotheker-Verein -...-..-.-----------.------
Blankenburg, (Brunswick.)—Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein des Harzes..---....---
bent, (Prussia) ke Stermwartes. 20201. 8 ML Oh le ae hn

Naturhistorischer Verein der preussischen Rheinlande und Westphalens -..---.
Redaction des Wiegmann’schen Archivs fir Naturgeschickte, (Prof. Troschel)

Wnivermitats-biuliothek J. 2eeus eee ke PERL) eben lon de ee
Uiniversitats-Stermwarte, <== 2): 45-2 222252,22 220 ee ee Sa ee
Verein von Alterthumsfreunden im Rheinlande :-....---------....--2222 22.
Braunschweig, (Brunswick.)—¥F. Vieweg und Sohn ....-.-.-2-2 2-22-22. 222222222.
Bremen, (Hanse- Town. )—Sitadt-Bibliothek 2!) 1222 22). 2hi i222 2 ee
meresiau, (russia. )—Gowerbe-V erein . 0120 U 2200227, YI DIOL OLS SO) Su cat
Konigls. Preuss) Ober-Berg*Amitdicye Qu 2e2be eso. ees Ou) oy
Schlesische Blinden-Unterrichts-Anstalt _......2-..----- 222222 ..2-2.02----
Schlesische Gesellschaft fir vaterlandische Cultur....-.-----.--..-...------
Schlesischer Verein fiir Berg- und Hiittenkunde-.--.---.-. 2-2. 2.2-2..22---
Brinn, (Austria.)—K. K. Mahrisch-schlesische Gesellschaft fur Ackerbau Natur- und
andeslownde) einer Se eIiO i) Bas bere cS ck ats

INaturforschender- Verein: «so<2= OEE eu: Ee fae a ELI Sand
Werner-Verein zur geologischen Durchforschung von Mahren und Schlesien - -

Buda, ( Austria.)—A Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia........-..----.-----.------
Celle, (Hannover. )—Landwirthschaftliche Gesellschaft ......--..----------..-----
Chemnitz: ——Ke (Gewerbsehule teeny 42 2 ur Oe ha) SS AU kee Od
Chemnitz.—Redaction des Deutschen Industrie Zeitung. .....-..-.-.-2--.--..------
OffentlichesHandels=ehranstallt asso j22 LOR sb oecae eases
Danzig, (Prussia. )—Naturforschende Gesellschaft !./2.- 2222-502 oo. 2
Darmstadt, ( Hessia.)—Grossherzoglich Hessische Central-Stelle fiir die Landes Statistik
Grossherz.“Elessischer'Gewerbe-Vereim tie uo ls ce kee cea le Te ely ae
Mitielrheiniseh-ceologiseher -V éreltn. 2.00 icine jo beg ote 7. BAe
Verein fur Erdkunde u. verwandte Wissenschaften ..........-----..--.-.--
Deidesheim, ( Bavaria.)—Pollichia: Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein Ger bayerischen
Pfeil ak tre sct otro fence trene en Say Goll DEN EI oe ok Des ee

Dessau, (Anhalt.)—Naturhistorischer Verein 22222 222 28 Sie ioe oe
Dresden, (Saxony.)—Seine Majestat der Konig von Sachsen-......---.------------
Gesellschaft, *" Isis? 20h eS. 2a ee UE eh A et os ede

an delselbe brain ste ba. 28sec sais sete Stays abo eho i rete ea
Kaiserliche Leopoldino-Carolinische Deutsche Akademie.....-...-----------
Rignicieley inden A ns alias tee ote a ceil te iaicls oe awn ve nee beebeint awe mois

Res Oliyme COIS CHEWS CM ING et ss Sue sca Tat ss aid aya tote ee ee alcatel
SAChsischesImcenicuL=VeLelNess sets s a) sheets gone t oY oem reese ae

SSRI MUSIDSFCI a ENS HAT BY ea 0 Tus ee SVE utr sp i rt ES a
Eisenach.—Grossherz. Car] Friedrich Gymnasium.-......-.--.-------+------+-----
(GMOgs Welzeeek Calle Gry MNTES ITA erat ere ee cya Sin oye et OR te ere re Nee
Elberfeld, (Prussia.)—Naturwissenschattl. Verein v. Elberfeld u. Barmen. ..-.--.----
Wippenthnleribierschutz-Wierelny sete pe ee) a ent cigapee ate peer nle, e .
Hidenaw(prussia.)—baluscher Centrale Verein o-oo =. ono teee nee to ete = men
K. P. Staats- und landwirthschaftl. Akademie Eldena....-.-..---...--.----
Emden, (Hannover.)—Naturforschende Gesellschaft............---.--------------
Ems, (Nassau. )—Redaction der Balneologischen Zeitung..-..-...--..---.--------
Erfurt, (Prussia.)—Akademie Gemeinnitziger Wissenschaften .-.---..------------
Frankfurt-am-Main, (Hanse- Town.)—Gartenbaugesellschaft ‘‘ Flora” ........------
pny SiiseliS CHeTRVCLO Mee corres en res ase Cal oo a ope en, wea iae. 5 = i aan
Senckenbergische naturforschende Gesellschaft -....----------.-----.------
Woercmentn Georrplio md statistic co. S0 5 vce e acc eccoec ls fp ee ameees

Ma Omsehe tes NSM athe sane meen ca emcee — bens meme. ijnala erat cireid <a Senet

wen
OPP ROTTS WWW P ROW OO

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92 DOTATIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Freiberg, (Saxony. )--Koniglich Sachsische Bergakademie ..............----.-----
Freiburg, ( Baden. \—Gresellschaft fur Beforderung der Naturwissenschaften.......-.
Universitats-Blbliothek: ...... 22.72 Ue ee ee ee ee ee
Hriedberg, (Hessia..)—Blinden-Anstaltes522 22550 e sees ae eee eee
Taubstummen-Anstalt<2s:4 Waa. If SS Ss ee eee ae
Giessen, ( Hessia. )—Oberhessische Geseilschaft far Natur- und Heilkunde......----
Universitats-Bibliothek. 22544 Case Ges obo tee ee CIO ee SP Ben
Gorlitz, (Prussia. )—Naturforschende Gesellschaft -..-.-..-----.-2--2220 22. 2-22.
Oberlausitzer Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften -....-.---...-.-...---.------

Verein. fir Auibnerzuchtu.,:+2so32.h8s5) 1 Ye ee ae ry
Gottingen, ( Hannover.) —Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften .........-.---
Gotha, re Koburg-Gotha.)— —Geographische Amstalt shh 02 ie SOR es te NRT

Herz. Bibliothek der Friedenstein’schen Sanimiluncentessa.- 2 = see eee

‘EhurineerGartenbau- Verein: 244 22 5s ese Ee
Gratz, (. Austria. )—Geognostisch-Montanistischer Vercin fiir Steiermark.........---

Historischer Verein far Steiermark ...-......2222.22---. 2-222. -22 uses ee

K. K. Steiermarkische Landwirthschafts-Gesellschaft ......-.....---.------

Steiermarkischer Industrie- und Gewerbe-Verein..........--.-..----.------
Greifswald, (Prussia.)—Universitats-Bibliothek- .--........2..-..2.-. 22222212.
Gumbinnen, (Prussia. )—Landwirtbhschaftlicher Central-Verein fiir Littauen und Ma-

SUL Sco ekRic ces Cae Sek eS ees SERIE ht eee 19
Haile, (Prussia. )—Naturferschende Gesellschaft: 2222.22 22.02) 22 72. NTL 15

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fur Sachsen und Thiiringen .-...-..-.------ 10

Thuringisch-Sachsischer Verein fir vaterlandische Altert humskunde we tiles eee 2

Universitats-Bibliotileke: s =... <=. . 220k ae UA ison ORE BRE NG ion 228
Hamburg, (Hanse- Town. )—Allgemeine Armen-Anstalt ..........----.------------ 1

Commerz-Bi bliothele 2252325 ssecedeen sseeek ss Ses ee ee Se Lt

Naturwissenschaftiicher Vereinass 3559 eso. G5 ae ert ee Se are eee 3

Stadt=Bibliothelesss - a se5 see sere cate See Sa ee oe eS PE ee 49

Verein fur; Hamburgische Gesehichiet?: £2 2. 2ue0 eee Bee ee ee 5
Hanau, (Hessia.)\—Wetterauer Gesellschaft far die gesammte Naturkunde --..------ 7
Hannover. —Apotheker Verein in Nord- Deutschland 3c ghee OT Na ee ees 24

ATCMtecten- Und enicul-Vierelalass= 4. 2454 te ae ee ee 15
Hannovcr, (Hannover.)—G Gewerbe-Verein fur das das K. Hannover2sa0s220 2s ee 10

Ebstonscher Werein fur Niedersachsen: = =. os 2- 5222 2a Re Ee Re eer 26

Konisliche Bipliothels. 122002425237 Ste 3 332525 ee ee 18

Nafurhistorische Geselischatt. $s.) 2s5 ss asc essere ooh eee eee 5

Polytéthnische, Schule: 2 ass N2s988 1 Fad a eee es 16
Heidelberg, (Baden. )—Naturhistorisch-medicinischer Verein. ....--..-.------------ 37

Wniversitats-Bibliothele.: x2. 52e<r cee Oe ee Eee 82
Hermannstadt, ( Austria.)—Siebenburgischer Verein fiir Naturwissenschaften - .----- 43

Verein fir Siebenbirgische Landeskunde EE ine oS Bec fel Sn Sey net See 16
Innsbruck, ( Austria. )—F erdinandeum 0.2... =. Rae ana 5
Jena, (Saxe-Weimar. )—Landwirthschafisliche nstitat eS ot See Veo se cee oe 30

Medicinisch-Naturwissenfchaftiiche Geselischaft.......-.....-------.-.----- 2

Universitats-Bibliothels...-.2c: Ue CO eee 265
Karlsruhe, (Baden. )—Centralstelle fir die Landwirthschaft -.....----.------------ 1

Grossherzogliche Hof bibliothek ...-.—.-. 227-7 Ree eee 22
Kassel, ( Hessia. ang Commission fur Landwirthschaftliche Angelegenheiten in Kur- °

héssenwhested Jo ee he A eee 126
Kiel, ( Holstein.) —Landw irthschaftlicher Generalverein des Herzogihums Holstein -- - 4

Redaction. der. SchulbZeihamatct) os. S00 ORR es eee ee 2

S. H. L. Geselischaft fur die Sammlung und Erhaitung vaterl. Alterthumer- -- 4

Schleswig-Holstein-Lauenburgische Gesellschatt fur vaterlandische Geschichte 1i

Universitats-Bibliothelke -ceuce cece ss enecus ticks sete sk noe eee 12

Verein nordlich der Eibe fur Verbreitung Naturwissenschaftlicher Kenntniss - - 4
Klagenfurt, (Austria. )—K. K. Landwirthschatis-Gesellschaft..-...--------------- 63

Naturbistonsches. Musetmy soee 2) ie. et eee ee ee 4
Klausenbure, ( Austria. )=Erdélyi Muzeum) Eeylet: ==. 222200 eee een eee 2
Kénigsberg, \ Prussia. )\—Centralstelle der Landwirthschaftlichen Vereine des Regie-

rung sBezinkssKioni osherp seers: ner eens 33

Ostpreussische Physikalisch- Okonomische Gese!lschaft ......-..------------ 8

MLCUNWATLO oct son tye eek 2 oS See re See cere Se er 2

Universitats: Bibliothek: = 2. 12 eee Ee ee See ee eee 101
Krakau, ( Austria.)—C. K. Towarzystwo Naukowe Krakowshie. ..-.--..---------- 16

Uniwersyier Krakowski s/o o5S5 2020 ye Se ee ee 3

Sterniwarteune Sica: wos 2.55 bos bit oe Re oe eee 11
Kremsmitnster.cAustiva2)—stemwarte fe sssa5-os- eee oo eee ee ee eee 11
Hanbach, <Austrias)—bandes=Museum) ss accoe= sooo ee eee ee ee ee eee 1

Juristische Gesellschait i en tnoree entrd Bare nama ee ee as wet ON ee ere 13

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Landshut.—Historischer Verein fiir Niederbayern.....-....-...-..---..-----.-----
Leipzig, (Saxony.)—Deutsche Morgenlandische Gesellschaft.....-..-.---.-.------
Py AcpBrackhaus’, Verlagsbuchhandlimp rs so _ S22. 5 ac SaSeU se a
Firstlich Jablonowski’sche Gesellschaft. .... 2.22.20. 22-20-20 -2ee eee cece
K6niglich Sachsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.......-...----.------
Polyrechnische, Gesellschafts.-5 2-2 3S esas oasck states ese eS
Redscionder Mentsche Wandwirthe <=3. sees -2- Sjadeisecaee eee een
RairbstomomenwAm stalt; ck sere 0 Seep etes A ie be el ile adh ol RASS LS
(Uiniersitats- Bibliothek (tess tea eR ae a) Nh Seles es
WMeremivonHreunde.der Pirdkvunde) 2 <2). ae sana sos Seas sae eee
Linz, ( Austria. }—Handels- und Gewerbekammer Ober@sterreichs....-.-.....------
Museunn Hrancisco-Carolinum) 22.-25s24--4use eee = Shaieh aalien Beet
Liibeck, (Hanse- Town. )—Museum fir Kunst und Natur ....---------------.------
Liineburg, (Hannover. )—Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein......------------------
Luxembourg, (Luxenburg.)—Société des Sciences Naturelles du Grand-Duché de Lux-
Chill \obige ee Gace amis nis neh cree ar eres eno
Société pour la Recherche et la Conservation des Monuments Historiques dans
ler Grand-Dnchédorlouxembn Ure ey- aaa oeeia eee eerie aes
Mainz, (Hessia.)—Grossherzoglich Handels-Kammer .....-----------------------
Mannheim,
WWiGie Mentone NeAMULT Kal ITI OG sien oni cicin = ey-y eee ia ce et arrep eS oe eee ee
Marburg, ( Hessia.)—Gesellschaft zur Befoderung der gesammten Naturwissenschaften
(Wintiversitape-sbliouheler ss. Soe 5. Pes Sie lee Se op 2 day pt ee ee em
Meiningen, (Saxe-Meiningen. )—Verein fur Pomologie und Gartenbau -.-..---------
Meissen, (Saxony. \—Naturwissenschaftliche 66 Tig?! 5 Se EES Ty ig Say eh ly eh Gea i 2
Merseburg, (Prussia. )—Landwir thschaftlicher Central-Verein fur die Provinz Sachsen

See ee ee ee er ad

Deincken: (Munich, ) (Bavaria. )\=-Bavanian Government ssa. 5.ebs- eae: oe eee
Baierischen Gartenbau Gesellschaft......-..-.-+-.--2--+-2-+ sce ccsceceeee
K6niglich Baierische Akademie der Wissenschaften........-...------------
Konigliche Hot jund, Staats Bipliothelkee-ey- sey ee eee eee yan eae See
Iandwinthscha@uicher Verein... easeeee dae aie oa eee eee a
Poly techmischem Verena 44 + saves, Seley ne (seetot) 2) epbesl oes W847 Linear) Ui eed tone poe ie car

De SUC GINYAL Oye sae os toys epee ei Doe Ae elon Sek eee eed Syne cee ae ers
iNeisse-——_ Key Watbolsche, Gymnasinin ae: sees ame ios ees eels SaoSe eee
ipinlomarnhischerGeselischattmes- ass s ute fa tt bod aes Soe wee ee

Hed seme sas Sete onal e Seeks Sale ota a AR kollel Blast ho cal Ninh hae a eS

- Neu- Brandenburg, (Mecklenburg.)—Verein der Freunde der Naturgeschichte in Meck-
lenban ei :25 4a pss aoe A cS See eas

Nirnberg, (Bavaria.)—Germanisches Museum. .-.-.-..-.-.-----------------+ +--+
NSTOMMISLONISENeY Gresells@laitiws 5 onan ees clas seichey eee aie crm oye OS eee a

Mjenbach.(Hessva.)——V ereini fur Navurkund bare sts cieces -seeese oes sees ice. eee
Grossberzoclich Handels-Wammer.s-o-2o inser ease eee ee oe ae eee

Oldenburg, (Oldenburg g.)—Grossherzogliche Bibliothek .-...----.-..--------------

Olmiitz, (Austria. )—K. K. Ober- Bicalchiularn ste ie Wetec os) eae mente
Reshe Covmm asitma sae ot Sere tate Sea eee Ars eee a Sep et oee aero eee
Wmiversitats= Bibliothek: 2 2925 227 eee earns PS eee Pe eek se

Passau, (Bavaria. )—Naturhistorischer BY fCAR ETH yee eg ty ERR ee Re NS ae oes ey, Cae
Prakinsche Ganrtenbau-Gesellimibaierntes-4-2tco2-5 see ecssede ss Meee oaceee

Pesth, (Austria. )—Kiralyi Magyar Termeszettudomanyi Tarsulat.........--.------
Wrinersianss to lothek ness is 55h stad e hee oe eS ee ae eee

Potsdam, (Prussia.)—Botanisher Verein fiir die Provinz Brandenburg .-.-.--------

Prag, (Austria. )—Koniglich Bohmische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. ..-..-----
K. K. Patriotisch-Gkonomische Gesellschaft -...-...-----..-------1--------
Rewer SLCTN WAL LG, ee soars ae tae ne ees | Re ee ee Soe te
Verein fur Geschichte der Deutschen in Béhmen-.........-----------------

Presshurg, (Austrea.)—Verein tur Naturkunde 252.23: 25.-2.22 --4-20 soos-s------

Regensburg, ( Bavaria. )—Historischer Verein fur die Ober-Pfalz. -..--.------------
RegibalemscherApotheker Vierelnisse see Gens se). Seem eele pinnae ls Jlrs
Keehaietschespovmiccher Gesellscnatigeas.. sao c.s)- 52 tease te teenie ce asl ciele
AOnovisch-vuneralomischer’ Verelmiwess ese vedo 2s eae eeeles se aes 2- ose we sone

Rostock, (Mecklenburg.)—Mecklenburgische Patriotischer Verein..-.-..----.------
WOMIVersitaisserolOunelets stent ee eee es. yd See oo NS oe ee aaa

Salzburg, ( Austria.)—Vaterlaindisches Museum Carolino-Augusteum...-.----------

Schwerin, ( Mecklenburg-Schwerin. )—Grossherzogliches Statistisches Bureau...-.----
Verein fiar Mecklenburgische Geschichte und Alterthumskunde..-------.-----

Stettin, (Prussia. )—Entomologischer VReT ee te ea ns5)) Si aera Ihc at oS a rer

Stuttgart (Wiritemberg.)—Gewerbe-Verein -__. 2... d0cGeoe on - cat dates nwauee
K. Centralstelle fiir die Landwirthschaft ......--.-.---0+ ----00 ceeeeeeeedee

ie Ceutralstelle tumGewerbe una Elandell #2585. Sak obec clsaen eoeeees

12

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94 DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Ke Often tliche Bibloibeess ee ae ee ae en aeteia Se claaiatas sect eee 3
Ke, Statistisch-topomraphisees ws urea ten eyes ane teeter a dee ee 9
Monatschrift fiir Pomologie und praktischen Obstbau----.-..--------------- 11
Verein fur Vaterlind Naturkunde aN vig) coll ee eNeme me ore ae eens Se AS 8
Verein zur Fiivsorge fiir entlassene Strafmefangene--.-.---.---------------- 7
Wiairttembergischer Autertiumis-\Wereime 25 i200 rotate re eet area 7
Wiirttembergischer Aaatheher Were io) 2 Aa eee ee ee fare 2
Tharand, (Saxony. yee <Onielich Sachs. Akademie fir Forst und Landwirthe -..- ..-- 2
Trieste, ( Austria. )—Civico - Museo Ferdinando-Massimiliano -......--..----.------ 2
Garxtenbau-Geselischatt«des Muitorale:.:- 2-23 sa2 sane see eee oe eee eee 11
K. K. Hydroeraphische-Anstalt und Marine-Sternwarte, (Director, Dr. Schaub) 11
Societa Scientifico letteraria delle Minerva... -2:2-2.- s2--)252--2--222--2-- 24
Weimar, (Saxe-Weimar. )—Geographisches Institut. ..---------------------------- ve yensgltes
GrossherzomlichesGymmnasimint ose See oe ote eee eel ae ee eet ae 2
Wilhelm =Rinst:Giymmasitni ssi soe ae eee roe ore ove eae oh nee eee 3
Wien, (Vienna, ) ( Austria.)—Hydrographische Anstalt der Kais. Osster. Marine. --- . 2
Kaiserliche Alkademie’ der Wissenschatten: -2..- $2.2).5-20-- seme oo eee 240
K. K. Central-Anstalt fur Meteorologie u. Erd-Magnetism..-.---...--------- 1
Kooks, Direction:des Adminisinativen! Statisulkeess = 225] seers nee eras 4
ie GeopraphisehenGesellsehaits sass teeer sels ele sie) tal iar ee ea 12
EKRUKG Geolomischem bench Sarg tallies reey tetas ence erase tea 24
Koike. Hof-nmabStagisdriekereiyis. 22 tet -o at 2 eee come ee cows cele aebeeoe 12
KA. duendwirthsehatt-Geésellechaftys: to kee coe cnc cloctete eee te erate ee 38
Koiky Marine-Ober@ommrando: 220 sere eco ae oe ie. ae sree ake eee ree 3
1, Ke Stemyantets tat ee ont 85525 See eee ee ete eyoe e ae eee es 42
K. K. Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaft --...-------.--+----.------------ 20
Oster Insenréyr-Veretn $222 _ o2 1 aoe as ce eee eee hoe eae ae ee 57
Redaction “der ntonrologischem, MoOnatss Chih ee epee ae ete ae 68
Redaction der Osterreichischen Zeitschrift fur Berg-und Huttenkunde -- -- -. -- 1
Redaction der Osterreichischen Zeitschrift fur praktische Heilkunde- --. ---.-- 53
RedactioniderOstrnd Wiest. oe cn ae Se ese ee eee eRe ees a
Wniversitats-Bibliothek 7 27 fo ee oes dees enc Se eee Con eee eee o
Wiesbaden, (Nassau. )—Verein fiir Nassauische Geschichte u. Alterthumskunde. . -- -- 7
Verein Naturkcunde es i25 22. een acc eco cs ae sae acee aes ae eee 15
Worms, (Hesse- Darmstadt. )—Grossherz. Handels-Kammer Eee oe saws eae Se 2
HWitrzburg, (Bavaria.)—HUistorischer Verein yon Unterfranken und Aschaffenburg- -- lp
Physikalisch-Medicinische Gesellsthatts > 3.2.25 -S2s05,5s55 escapee 46
Polytechnischer SVIGKEM St See eee Une lee er cee eer ole a 10
Omiversitate= Bibliothek cor yen cmenocraicie re oe cheat cise is ea eee eect eee
Verein fiir Nassanische Alterthumskunde und Geschichtsfor OMe SSPE 17
SWITZERLAND.
Aarau.—Aargauische Naturforschende Gesellschaft -...-.2.-.-.-.-----.---------- 8
Basel.—Gesellschaft fiir vaterlindische Alterthtmer .........-....---...-....----- 11
Naturtorschends, Gesellschatt)—.. .. sei seen - ne ee ee ee ee 6
Universitats-Bibiiothek «5... . 222026 cease 2 2e 2Rbee ee eee eee 10
Bern.—Allgemeine Schweizerische Gesellschaft fur die gesammtem Naturwissen-
SCH@tteN ee son oso ee hous bree Somat a ee ee eee 12
Conseil Wedéral Swissey.- 2 Sasa. ool em ede c mice oe ene ie ee se eee fi
Naturforschende.Gesellschath, 22 ecce nc. cae a oe a ee ee aes 6
Okonomische Gesellschaft des Kantons) Bern. <2. =e trter eee eee tee re SY
Universitats-Bibliothekye sae 9- 59.38 ocr sais oe Sel ee ee ee 52
Chur.—Naturforschende Gesellschaft Graubiindens ...-....------.----------------- 9
ieneve—Institat National, GeneMOls =< 22 ..-.<..-2c00s coe ceases te Oe e eee ee 3
Societe Genevoise dUitilie oblique... sseeeee eee eee ee eee eee 6
Societéde Georraphies. 22 2a seen sen vsti oesinaysa ae SE Ce ae ee 3.
Societe de Physique et:djklistoie Naturelle. | 252555255 ssee eee eae eee %
Lausanne.—Asile des Aveugles de Lausanne .....--.,--.----------------+------- 6
secictée'd’ Histoire dela Suisse. Romande. 5...socsasesoeoeneteee cee aoe eee 4
Societé’ Vaudoise_ des Sciences Naturelles >.--sasseonee see een eee tee eee 7
Neuchatel.— Société des Sciences Naturelles-_.......05 .jocecaencceee Joe soccer eee 6
St. Gallen.—-Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft ..........-.--..----.---1:-------- 5
Zitrich.—Hcole Polytechnique. Fedérale. -\......<0c0eico sacaencceeesees sabes meee 13
Naturforschende \Gesellschatt. en 22 senso. cere eee ee ee Ee eee a
Universitats-Bibliothels.... se Spee es Ae Se ae Doe ee ee 81
BELGIUM.
Anvers, (Antwerp>)—Sociétede Pharmacie. 2-2acocee see eee Caco e eee a eA
Société Palacontolosique de Beloique:ts 222. 2 css ese sse cone eee == eee ee 6.

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Bruxelles, (Brussels. )}—Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts
MONCH IGM Sl a ie, tee ge ueredee aah apa mis ey ste ects cic eee sae

Fitablissement Geographique de Bruxelles ..........-.--------------++-----
Obsonvaroimenkvoyal) 0s shee epee eee oleh eye ta NS ay ear Meares lnredayete =
Socicic hoyale linncenne de) Bruxelles 2. os 2 2 ci eeintayfemisiai ey aie =

(Baile (GLa USO ORS ae Shere a eS RE Ae Re ere eon oe ee Soba toe
Rigae OOciete BOYES (eS SCONCES. oo. 6 sci econ wede vs ae eae eelse sas ae =
Pouvan—— Universite © AthOlguUes epee ss -— semen alee ot ass obs) Sa cane ainisinere one '
Mons.—Société des Sciences, des Arts et des Lettres du Hainaut..-.--.-.----..-----

FRANCE.

lunsintigaly Glas) Eitoraea cases. Biya(COS65 aaa seas Sasol sesce S56 eeee cose beceae a oce> pee
Congres Scientifique de France--..-.---.-------------------< 20-22-62 25-2 -2-5-5
Abbeville.—Société Impériale d’ Emulation. -........-....-.---------------.+-----
Amiens.—Société des Antiquaires de Picardie---...----..----.------.----.------
Angers.—Société Linnéennes du Départment de Maine-et-Loire --.-.--..----------
Société Académique de Maine-et-Loire...-.-....---.-.-2-----------------+
eaters. (HETaa,)—OOCletS ATCREOLOPIQUC © wie -)-. 000, arc aren een e cme wemisiecie te sas
Bordeaux.—Acad. Impériale des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts... .-....----------
INCA ETHIC COM SOLO CHUM 2a. cat eo SA Salsa isa o 8 Sia) So: nie we aoe a oro ea Rie eee ake
@hambrerd eC ommerces sec e aes sa he ee oat japs a ale ate. 2 ap oso) apy nee aie oe
SUCicLe a Elonneulture rd exe GitONCe 2/2 frac alee lena ooh alo eee ee ete ee
Société des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles-.... .--. ..-. 0... --2- 2222-225
Pocieve ehilomeathigne:de bordeaux ss sas. e soe oar on) = yolnaiolee eiee aoe ie
USS A Louw atts ahaley (le) al pO ORAS SA BUS ee See eee ee Ror e kee ced
Caen.—Académie des Sciences, Art et Belles-Lettres -.....-..-------/-------+es--
Socicterdes ambiiquaires, des; Norman Wie aye ses caiea= alee yeaa ite tera
Docietomuinneenne desNormandies tice a2 oe <o)oe yc eee esata ate em ote nae
oeleionde. Medecine: de© semis. seer a i Nee tale tla aetna theta ay
Chambéry.—Sociéié Imp. Académique de Savoie... ....-.-.----------------------
Chélons-sur-Marne.—-Société d’ Agriculture, Commerce et Sciences de la Marne. ----
Cherbourg.—Société Imp. des Sciences Naturelles de Cherbourg. .-----------------
Dijon.—Académie des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres de Dijon-.-.---.--.-.--------
Société d’ Agriculture et d’Industrie Agricole du Départment de la Cote @Or..
Mover ——=WViuseumipd we ushOime: NALUTeW enn eee sth see cme iee lain eal Hic .a [a s\clnwein/e)aifa etm

Dunkerque.—Société Dunkerquoise pour l’Encouragement des Sciences .--.--.-----
Evreuz.—Société Libre d’ Agriculture, Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres de Kure... --
Le Mans.—Société d’ Agriculture, Science et Arts de la Sarthe. ..........-.-.-.-.--
Lyon.—Société Impériale de ’Agriculture, Histoire Naturelle et Arts Utiles de Lyon.
Académie des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts de Lyon......---.-----.------
Saciete sky dromemiouende Vey ON see sea eget leila was ces ae

Mende.—Société d’ Agriculture, Industrie, Sciences et Arts du Département de la Lozére
Metz. A cAdemion mpenaledewletz. <2. sate teat ine ces sam teeta eine © aay eeeate ela
Société d’Histoire Naturelle du Département de la Moselle -----..----.------
Montpellier.—Societé Archéologique dé Montpellier....-....-...------------------
Académie des Sciences et Lettres de Montpellier -....-...------------------
Hunlhousc.<-Socicteslnaustriellor: ar wee seme eee eames ones eb cele e se,
ance r—— A CaUGniio de Stanislas). en sae eka = ein cute aes ocicec sme sun see ea
J FESS IN Cae (orate Olt (Cane UA Ae ine Oe cee sea SDE OEE Gener Shia eee eucErenoetoe
avis. biblomequeLmperiale \ een ee la oe cian oe oote VEL DUI SETS
(CONS yenyavsrneayies les DS ee eee Gee icor Soe eh eousoponor

lpasiiiitoRh CP IOENINEE) SSO een Bee eaenbeee COs OMe Cee ene ce on meebo ormombon

Lia Srirheyi 8 Wish oven UES) oon Migsyayers). = RAS oy eae eS ao oowaeeee
Mimistere devia Gieme=ssaseser ao an) as casas = 1 eae ee elon ete aaron aicr s
Ministére de la, Marine et des Colonies ...-s222 2025 22-2). 2220 S205 22 See

Mise mmrdeblisioine Nia tumell ear ers at ataia ols ot aca eee eater amie oe l= ciate
Opsenvatoire imperial <2. .05<,.4 1-145 eeenite ae se oe Uae ee Se weal
NOCeTeldcAmMUnT ON OlO MIO evecare ee Reece aoe eee eee an econ
Romicte des E Glo mI Ej) mais eesputen Seen SSE Wee Seater es. SST Se
Société de Géographie......-..-.--- PRET te. eee nee een nclee Se ueS
Sdcicste Mapomo@loo ques. i205 ae ioe 2 ba sina Seeeres Sool Ste 2 <2

Société Francaise de Statistiques Universelle, (Acad. Nat. Agr. Manufactur. et .

Convmenciaie en ts nee ee ies ee elec e: atte OS RATS eee ae te aac betas
Sects Geolaminie do, PMA mCe. ao ee pect) mom CR oes Bee eee eel ee
Société Impériale et Centrale d’Horticulture de Paris ...-.----.-------------
maciete Medicale tiomosapathigne.. 5055.2 - lj j-poeonsceestasc-5--252- e205 cee
pacicie Metécrolomique de Prance . 2 Seree 22 oo e ee oon ine else ome
Societen Ehnilomaitanevss ne ee rc reiscee cia vee omen. es Aes oe la ad te oe
Buciets ZOOL ne a ACeTOnbOM oe a) ase alte noe a wl iataimietre Sere aiaiale

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96 DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Rouen.—Académie des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts de Rouen..........-..-----
Saint- Quentin.—Societé Académique des Sciences, Arts, Belles-Lettres, et Agriculture
Strasbourg.—Socicté des Sciences Naturelles de Strasboure te > AN ee ee a

Société des Sciences, Agriculture et Arts du Bas- Rhin Se eee Ae
See Ha des Sciences, gatas et Belles- Jetines de Toulouse... ----

ITALY.

Berfamo:—sociera Indusiriale; Bermamascas. - 3. =o s2— = = eee ete ee
Bologna.—Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto di Bologna... ..-.-.-.-.-...-.-.--
Firenze, (I'lorence. )}—Reale Museo di Fisica e Storia Naturale di Firenze... ..--..--
Genova, (Genoa.)—Arch. per la Zoologia, Anatomia e la Physiologia -....-.-.-.--
Milano.—Associazione Agricola Lombarda di Corte del Palasio.....-....-.--------
Ateneo di Scienze, “Ridttere ed Anbirg sel a ieceecont pane 52-3 ek See
Ospedale Macoiore di, Milano. = 2222) 5> eee ss 9 eee ee een
Osservatorio - =. .-..1.-. -- 22. -s-s- skyss Se eee eee Ae See
Imp. Regio Istituto Lombardo di ecienze; duettere.éd Artiss.22: ave eee ee
Societa Geologica SESS Io SEO OOS O50 HOO MEINE > Bera Pane bon coor
Societd Italiana di Scienze Naturali
Modena.—Societa Italiana della Scienze -.2-esc8-- Sa s- see eee ee eee eee
Napoli, (Naples.)—Accademia degli Aspiranti Naturalisti
Reale Accademia delle Scienze e Belle Lettere ........-2.-2--22eeeeeeeeeeee
pocieta, IeealedisNapolic: ooo tee ec ee ee eee er
Padova, (Padua.)—Imperiale Regia Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti di Padova
Palermo.—Accademia Palermitana di Scienze e Lettere
Wvesle’ Ossérvatonosa< 2. oe soe ee ee are ae ene ea
Rt. Istituto d@’Incoraggiamento di Agricoltura, Artie Mamiatture in Sicilia----.
Societa di Acclimazione e di Agricoltura in Sicilia
Roma.—Accaderua Pontificia dei Nuovi Lincel .2*..2-2 2-2-2224 eee eee eee
Corrispondenza Scientifica in Roma
Governo Pontoficio

wiend.—Accademin di, HISIOCHIM GN =.= 2-2 >. 5 ce ceeds a cine oe 6 Oe Lee eee
Torino, (Turin.)—Accademia Reale delle Scienze......-...---.-----+.---22------
Udine.—Associazione Apraxia Hriulana.<. 22-2 ces nn ms elena eae ee eee
Venezia, (Venice.)—I. R. Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti....-.-...----

Mechitaristen-C olleotum 22). sa... 212 =.) een ne Se eee eee oe
Verona.—Accademia d’ Agricoltura, Commercio ed Arti di Verona...-.....--.------

PORTUGAL,

Lisboa, (Lisbon.)—Academia Real das Sciencias -......-. ---. -ss. 222 205 cee eeeee
Observatorio do Infante D. Luiz

SPAIN.

Madrid.—Real Academia de Ciencias de Madrid ... 3.-.- --ccs- 2 -cceccsccecaecee
Real Academia de Ciencias Morales y Politicas -. 22.2852 e2ess-25+-seeeeeee
Real Academia de la Historia: << £52.06, dace einen 4 Ae eee ee eee eee eee
Real OSservaon0: 22.502 2s< snc ot eco an sc oes ea eee eee ee eee

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Bath—Bath and West of England Agricultural Society-...-..--------------------
Belfast.—Natural History and Philosophical Society 8-2 2322 Seaeeaee eae eens
Berwick-on- Tweed.—Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club..---..-----------------------
Birmingham.—Institution of Mechanical Engineers
Cambridge. —Cambridge Free Library
Cambridge Obsery atory
University Library, ,2.< ois. seec ee se et ca ceri See ee ee ee eee
Dublin.—Dublin University Zoélogical and Botanical Association
Geological Society of Dublin BAe eth Spite atch ond LS SA Ee
Natural History Society of Dublin
Royal Dublin Society
Royal Irish Academy ....... ..2q2Rese sah See Sse eS Ee ee eee
Hdinburgh.—Bannatyne Clubiz.... i sscseeno cen e ose nae eee ee eee ee eee
Botanical: Societiyj.-...22..occccne eect ee ce eee ee een ee eee
Library of Macnilty of Advocates sso-sensesneoee = aes eee eee eee
Meteorological Society of Scotland). -24>--42-0seeer ee eee =soeeeee ees ee eee
Royal College of Physicians

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DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

UN gr aM INO LS ai oe ai eee eae ed eo OP PPR LEA. nS yo es A
Rigid mise cal OOcleby eal seats ne oe tedocy. Val SRee ee ea Pe a oe

Oye COuIs hy SOCloby Ol, ATisggsmel a teen eae On UU OR SSL e ie SOUP yen
Rayelsocieny of Mdinburgihite seas aaa SKUs Se Sure see See 2 eee
SocietwomaAnti¢uaries, of Scotlands -ieuar Sek oe
PREIS EE MADERA pt sie RC Seiad oo ek ee New
Falmouth.—Royal Cornwall Polytechnic DOCleby WPT Seis ee
Bee re eal Yc DERI, oa oa elles aie mig ee a oan bole = Lie here tele Gwe
(GealooicalSOClenyin sai: Santee Wee ornare em tee cba o. Ut Le casa ir
Berens. novel Ohservatory. ost hcsscsss three eee telus lk Pe ee
Hensington.—South Kensington Museum. 2200.25 20252 5020 eee eel.
Kew.—Obser SVS CO Ty nee Tae SIR AT yea ate eT, RE TS SURE od eo AL
Kilkenny.—Kilkenny and Southeast of Ireland Archzological NOCIGtY Ste. scsen cee ae
Hing ston-upon-Hull.—Subscription Library-.-..-.----. 2-2-2 -.222. 2-2-2. 5---6-6
Leeds. —Geological and Polytechnic Seciate of the West Riding of Yorkshire-....--.
MeedsPinlossphical and Witerany, Sogiety:..<-.72o ete see oe eee es See
Leicester.—Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society.... ........---.----------
Liverpool.—F ree Public Library, Museum, and Gallery of Art, of the Town of Liver-
COLO SSS RS et Ry Rae eA NO Pe A eA A a ma eet SS Suc eed et
Caecbal 510) {1 8) VY eR SN ERE SAY A EA ete am ey 9 Spal Aap
Historie Society-ot Mancashire and\@heshire:. 2-223: .-2 2-222) eee
hierar and! Enilosophical Societyss.. sees ce ee cie ose cease eens wee eee
iiverpool Naturalists; field) Clabiiaesasceens stents s loca ei
EOIN GN Bod ER Ee NO OR ge ag
OWA PEN SHUOM OM eth ee Wat eeu seme s Coen nase is Aled Spa ai)
Puen. Ati nPOpglosical BOGlety.-..22/a.ees else Core. mee os ow dence a eee seal
Pinan dpa tis mati tyson ans so ace pat epee eee r oie a erates tart ae Cet sree pre nn
ROL inAdG. ceeita ts Gs 8 ys eee oss | tt Se eue raed oe Maybe
British Association for the Advancement OM SCIENCE Ae eee Renee en Lees

HS GUTS NYG OV CRINTVOM Gta ceiapeee ale ah MUR are at ner tats ORO ne NUDE TAN PUI 4

PES eR Eee A Ug See ee temic a Renee RSE apa REN mr ICO Le SE Hl
Chemical SocietyuohWuandone 5 ecacwerse eee aetets ie ae eee coe nine eee
BOMOLOSICaLLSOCehya. eae a eeeeree Atse ee eases cates ome cake ae hme
noo loricalysocieiy, ofsuondoness ye ecee sane eee Se ee nn ee
ApGlopinh's AspOcimiOn..2 bee eee. ues Be aE nen ere ee eee
Geolnaical Societyanh Mondonse can sete ne al nee iee oe eh JNO EN ae

iihea} pal, Patomimiee. se meoe : yaa eT. Salo Sk ee ae
Hoyaldoricnliom SocietyworWondoncce sa. Ke) so coee eee chee eee tee one
Institute of Actuaries of Great Britain and Ireland ...-....---..----..----.-
ANSTO Gia Civil bine INeets eee se cso has eee cis cia anes eemieste nels comes
Library of the Hon. the East India COM DREY, 950 2 nye es ac ae hear
Mibrary. of Conporation,of, City; ot MondonS5az—— een sueeuee toes eee cee nee

HAITI EADY SOC ya neye ee iiatse oa Liale o's ela a, Lh te ree Coens NS. SRE Ea
Woudon Unshintion, (bins bury Circus) senses octane oe esac cela cease
ond onblibranviesa cote soso scree terete vee etait late toes tanec nieve ae or eeu
Hiish Meleprobkipies! Society... sasareeeecn et eees aeceee tee e ee ese eee
Museum oisPractivaliGeology. sucaeen ee es eas SN I teh SSAA ae
National Association for the Promotion of Social Science......---...---.-.--
PHO Otic Sociehyys we cena cae year manana seis oa toes Seat oue
PORT AR ACIP BRIEDYG ac. cose soars haere oes. SOLU ee ENE
mova Agrcmitural Society: of Mneland aos .- eho hacia cea tosnew cee ceeae
SORA ASIAtIC OCROUY a ee ao dba mea am enema ne finn sou saaeieainn Soe
Oya AS LONOMICA SOCIEL Ye when ete ae re aacla Sle ctala\la'= cre ame ocleltaley a cieas Se
Hoye! College of Surgcons of Mupland:sue2uut'so5s Jest eld. oe 2 eee a de$
hayal Geopraphical Society of Londenl wp posses) se S49 Sad ek
Royal Institution of Great Britain. seoet ees secace =o ee eea ne ee a ae
ROV al SOGICL ROL SU ONCO Na). 2 no enema enter. nate oe mee meee saa sete
DOCIEnyeOMAn MG Uaties Of ONG ys enero ols 24 <> vals eae eee ewes See
Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce.-.---.--
Statistical Society of ee TR 2 AE SEE OY Sc ee a
Poppy via mOCICU AE: 21: iid og ecteekl. aici Sa be o.c'eldlcamm ee weet sooo.
UmivensthyaCOlepe mages nee son ut meee bn Set. eS emo cine eae pone ete

AO OMIER I RSOCionyOLNuOn GMa mn see clara cis oo lec eee ees la eae mele Saisie ne
Macclesfield. —Macclesfield Society for Acquiring Useful Knowledge. -........--.---
Manchester.—Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester..---...-.----------
ancaghive Iigepengent ( ONCe. 2. ua noe m mane winner scece chee aba
Manchester Hreemibranyand Musenmc: 52 2.2.52 nsicccisie) ese) ois oeeleece
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.—Literary and Philosophical Society.-....---.--------------
yneside Naturalists? Pigldt@ln be sus oa ce ccoscckeinees coca couc/cuee seeuae

78

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98 DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

mt

Norwich.—Norfolk and Norwich Museum: W. soso. ses. bss wb ge Dae se ee 1
iNotwngham.—United Lunatic Asylum 2.5 oo22 Get even oc ae ae ses seeitecs oad 6
Oxford.— Bodleian’ Library 222. 5.5423 asso reads Facts Soe dade deena osidas oops 2
Oxford University. Entomological Society 2-22... Jo.) scsces waco ose i
adelitie: Observatory: :25 cesses 5 ees5 Sub te lon ae eens ates 4
Plymouth.—Plymouth Institution and Devon and Cornwall Natural History Society - 2
salford.—Kree Museum and Tbibrary- <---522s2c. cs 5 si5 ol se cues weeteeina as asa e 3
Town Council: of Salfords cae = oon cee se ems vmcdrn =o deinen as ane anaes arate 8
Taunton.—Somersetshire Archzeological and Natural History Society..-.-.-. ..---. 1
GREECE.
SOL RENS. A DBPRVOROEY a \0.<.a.< nm a me 8) oe cies yee Co mck ee aad eats Sele Seeger aoe 1
TURKEY.
Belgrad, (Serbia. )—Drushtvo srbske Slovessnosti (Society of Serbian Literature). .- 12
ASIA.
Batavia.—Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen.-....--.----- 6
Natuurkundige Vereeniging in Nederlandsch Indie. ...-..-...-----..------- 36
Bomboy;—— Bomp ey. CON CUM Gee eee ll oe ee eee en ia feet 2
Geographical Society...---------- ------ - +2222 22-2 - eee ee eee eee eee 1
Royal AsapicauGeiouyce scat sap pe ther seas eee ee aee eae e aan ae i
Calcutta. ees Nil Gaye HIN KS eo ep se sea ~-6, 46a. Jonna seiss Gooqcoseone so+ Besse 84
Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India--.---...~----. 2-5-5. ssa ae 8
Géolopieal Sunveyiotgindifie.-cebrae a. seems seem ee ne cee ne ee ee 22
Ceylon. =Aptatic Mociety sale att ie A seas tee oa coe eee ee a ek el Re 4
Shanghai.—Royal Asiatic Society of China, (North China Branch)...--.-.....---. 2
AUSTRALIA.
Hobarton, ( Tasmania. )—Royal Society of Tasmania..----.-----. ----+2 2-2 e-2--- 20
Welhourne:—Labraryu0t bariament- pe esta ei 1 eal 9) ewe rinses meee ieee = oe ee
Sydney.— Entomological Society of New South Wales..-.-..--..----- ------------
AMERICA—(exclusive of British America.) .
Habana, (Cuba. )—Real Sociedad Economica de la Habana. ......-..----.----..-- 68
Kingston, (Jamaica. )—Royal Society of Arts of Jamaica....-....----.--+-------- 12
Mezico, ( Mexico.)—Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica....-...-...---- 123
Rio Janeiro, ( Brazil. )—Instituto Historico, Geographico e evhsiopraphice de Imperio
Om bra zilice 2 eee ee a ete ee fe latte ee ee Rte cal ate) ae a
Santiago, ( Chiic. )—Ministro de Instruccion Publico.......---...---. .----------- 1
Universidad deiChile. js jess css dco seer. S cclon pceteieictnio ol endear 80

List of individuals of foreign countries from whom donations to the library of —
the Institution have been received during the years 1860-'64.

Name. | No. Name. No. 4

POE De tee ie i kt a 3 Bleekrode, Profs S2o- o2e-22 ser ee 15
NCSU GRO TG eel Sa AS PAllplsietiey Cpe A SBMS Oe a A ee 16
FAS CHEESON DT bro cco. concen eee ees 8 ol MBly th, Me Ne = see oe eee 1
Babunce nano. skeet 7.) WBonsdortt, Be disso. . oe aera cee 22
LEB GKOORG fe es el eee eas eee SSS hate 7 Booth, J., &# Sense 322 . 25sec 2
lShYenA (G5! ee eee eee sar Bose A || Botheld Bets sa-8 ececsate cen eee 2
LB FL LES G Pash A RS ey || SBOUre ety dena se aso = sno ce ee eee 4
TEGPIGED rare i0) DS ean enemies, Sid 8S 16°) (Brehm, Dro Agi: . 25.33 232 eee 12
Beanbag. lA 2. os". 2S ae 2) \/sBrockhaus: WH WAL J... occas ~ ee eteen 97
Barbosa du Bocage, J. V...--...---- 2:||sBrown, Prof. Hi... o. osc eee 16
Sabine epAte moet == sis bi. 2 a pee 3 (ebtuhns, DraC.C.... oe eeseanee re 1
Bellardvtisneee toc. waas on feces 4''|Bachner, Dr. O.... 2.- Locaeeee eee 17
IBeneden;) FardeiVall= oa. .1s2 5 See Si Calman, Profs: Wis... 524 eee eae 13
Bentfoy; rots cen <n wie eee ay is Candolle, Ac de... obs ae seme rete 1
Bering, ie Wren weio eases s wees aeee i | Canestrim, Dr. J’: ..- 5 ssceeose see 8
Betta, Dr. si desostas-. Jes eee Gil(e@arlier, As ose <. ceeereeeaeee 3
Bianconi, Drea ee eee ees 9,|| Carpenter; Dr. P. Pi. 2. cans ecee- 2
Blaschke) 202 So. eee ences came Li Cars, <Prot.de Nec -osceaeameccins ac 4

‘

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

List of individuals from whom donations to the library, §c.—Continued.

99

Be Name. No
Giauyveau. Hon. Pi J: O55 23.2 222552 14
MaaE Cy eat ccs sec aee eee 2
BRIE eat Cee ts lee ot so scacee ane 1
RRNA Ano tm ace ode Saco cetens 3
biel bake Ge AR eae eee Ar be 4
mooke, MeO peers ss cclsboses caskeess 4
MU OTHBIISY TOL 22 ace nae Se cace sees 1
SOWIE Cael DEBS Beas aReeeoo 6ser 11
MGIIANIIE: YE: VON a. 2.5 es ores 2
WOON at bee ecco saa a hecioncinele eine 1
WM RTCE: WAN Se oo slceectoe ae aun 2
Dejardin, J AMBRE BoE EO Dae Hoge oes 1
Molaneys aM. dec saceeede sows => 2
Welessea=4 sso sSsloicesc ce stec cect 2
Weg Moline; v= sis2 2 sceneeke lee 15
Wes Mute sOs s.2et eee sess eceee 1
CsNOVOrS) Je o-= eka ease ee ass = tt = 2
Wohrn,> Dy iO. AkeAp eee tees 8
Tes nG ois ied 24 (0) Ce 3
over Dreads Weeceet ete tt te 6
TOUTES G15) 0b Oey ee 5
Minton Erol. Ou eee I ea 2
MIME NA = Scie aceasta sence ss kts 1
Memon, Marl of... ..52-2). 25... 2
PaiMbOTRy Pew Viels Oe OO- sso ena 273
Encke, Dr. be 1 PPL Se seat ra pa stale alae Pe a
BAP OMMALIG, Jie Gio cicws acne saiees 76
OMEN, WV. \.- 22 -o 4 =m nnn na 1
Bisschens OrvC. von... 2.0 elses: 1
LENS rane Gl Ey oy eh ae wn eee ee 16
Fischer, 1D Sigg eee m er Oh se ltd 5
Marschaminer ETOL-..2 220. -f2--ecce~ 3
rONTMet POL Wires cet ese ae ae iat 14
aratretielGey Cr- cea nto oe sa ae oe 25
ARV Gy TEn0) ye agead garage agit Q
Seiten yeCUbds. Aco sec eto e on J
SE'TSTL 2 hor) Janel b apeipegn alaieree le Dra eee 2
RETOAT VETO Os. Liem cte lates a mrsinters.ai vi
soehrrekedy. yb 23 Sass secs assests 1
SPST gl ea a gl a Ph 238 A Se eae een 6
ECG Ta tara) Yet SCG ES i a pee Re 3
Gerling eco aes asta te o> ar 3
STEN E)8) La. BSB E SS SR GSE o Spee le ease 11
Bsa eDr Olen co ec scot see tous 113
Suck 41 ile) fase ae eas iene Some ae eee i 11
Mele OMM pe ee. ra rceiciswie, Actes sala mielate meine 2
Bocpoerts Dro Heh yess5. 252.2222 - 2
rithm ns Gases sor oo ore se esl ee 1
Print nnere Gran sso eS ee hee 36
MhinenwOregy Assos lec ee SS 37
Guérin-Méneville, Prof. F. E--..---- 54
Surin aa Ree se eR Hs o's oes |
Um MUTT Wie saan as csc jou oe 5
Pranurmee Pte Wie Blinc een acc ac - 25 e 2
iar CHINO seme L aoe estes a eet 7
Erie Perinat esata saa ast sea 41
ara: PTE sWit sacs soa ee et ae 4
arinann Mrs Cxassne sess Glee G2 oe 47
miaurhion: (RévVaSs<seesasecks oaeso 21
iMazlinsky,~ Profits 222525222 2250 2
BY SIdere PINs he Sa oa Nee a ats ares ee 27
Heis, leads dona pee Sucks ena 4) 140
HIG EL MOT Bites. ek mtcwtsarssnens 1

lormchel Sir. Js. 2oo same eon wee
leynemannt Woes. eee oae owe
Hildebrand, Dr...---.-.---.---.----

Hingenau, Baron von..-----.-------
pede Reed gets se Oe See

Hornes, Dr.
Hubner, 8 Jeb Spe lh ete AIC Ly gS
iulsse) Dr. 32223 see eae ee eke
Jacgers Wri Gath ha emccrstetemete cralerate 3
aren: Go womes eos sees es

Kam tz Dirs las HSS oe. Pie eee
Katona Dee sioS l oat Deeg one sae
Keferstem, Dr. W 222-028. 2S eee
Kirby, Wiebe si23 22 ae ae
Kirseh baum Pro Gishiees sae ee
Kattihized absvonne tess oose ews
Kener Dre Rees Sa aS ie Ute oa
AOC Protoss waco esta dace a ae
Kokscharows;, NeVOnsscc ose ou testes
Kollikerm Prot. At aot oos poacwe 2 seek
Koninck. iDrolitides soso eke oe
Reranse Dr ob eahs 2 esas?
Mreidel ty Nevneres 522) <2 mel cise eae
Rar Oren PACe OSAMA is ccs tei bale ae
1 iaafeqe yp Die sie See ee eee os
La Roquette, Geer sae ce ete aera
Lawes, J. B., and Dr. J. H. Gilbert.-
Lazar, Cit Con ers Pa A
Metiarzaks Dri Hose oo ccc o seattle
Tenks "Wr: SAO yee eee Bray
LE) SCAN Di We ee ee eek
Weuchartes vole cent aes le cee ote
(Dray, Chey De (ate eee Bree eee
rljehoroybrotW. So 2' 22 So -yasceu cere
and sa yon Wissel sactsco op8 sia con
iseh Hr Gs Peeks oe selsar States se
Littrow, K.
Maher brs Wess sssc.oaseteecth est
Woew. Dire Hi ss. sce eR eee
Mombardinis Ole sc aacts eee mowae
Macguire, So oe seca oat
1 Cll ial Ree Pere rene a eer tern

Martius, Dr.
WEREGe)s Bare ee): ta Ses
BVEASSON Vic soa emee ao eee tas teas
Meissner: DriGatineses 2-22 cen. oso
Mestre, Don Josée t= 22-222 See
Milne=Eb.dwardsiileteceeesscco ss coe
Mittermaier, Dr. K
Moesta, Dr.
Nitoliiepen a Se ee omenicc
1) on el Dl ea eee ee ener

Montague, DEN OB eae mmm scone
PMorlobAcsevessccd acess: Mikes

i
DS FO DD Be OT et OO ON

we
WAWWWHOR Pe

—

iS
He et bet kt 0D CO oe C0 © et et

ok
2 co

> >
WO OV GO

FS OO le fe fad rt OD a ed et OD et

_

100 DONATIONS

TO THE LIBRARY.

List of individuals from whom donations to the library, §c.—Continued. . :

Name. No
Morrison, Lieutenant R. J.--...----- 1
Motschilsky, (Vs ese eee ore acinaaine 8
Mueller Dr: Bee saereee cet see ate fee 1
Mriuhiryos Dr. Al Ae eee etna 2
Miller Pe cc fe Oe TS ee eee 31
Wy lira, ape Sa 9 a es riser ib
NIGdENMANM serio emet ss =o cae aon 3
PNG Ome hee ek Sees Uk aoe wee 1
OmbontwOre Geet. ae eee Q
Wisolateay Dies Ge acetone le eee oe 1
PAPA OpOliMAr.2 ce~ eae = sere Seer 1
Hapadopols Naas = << seo oe aetna ate 1
Heer ee bishOpr-t. 2 sates coh owen 2
pi LEAST TEES TRAN ot ee ease ale le ey Bley Sage 3
BURY, CAGE la eee enieere acide te li
Perthes, J. Boucher'de.- 2. -.2 2.8.5... Pp)
IPOrthesi: Jes -onek eee eee eee ae 75
Peters, Dr CAG: Bites coms eee 1
Peters, Prof W: =22-¢u2 see bee. 42 10
IPnoebus) Pars =~-~ oatieete seneae cs Q
12) alr ee ee eer Net ek CR ee 31
Plantamour, Prof, Wess... -b--s---- 13
hay WS bade G4 adeero emee JS GSMea 3
ocrondorlt tei Cc8 eas aa alles 1
Powelley Dm Gs Mes shel aclcs oe 1
POW ES aT On eee ees oes soe teas 1
prestele Dre Maa Hee soe ea. 14
IDTGVER DR Gieceesct ease os See See 80
PUNSHEIM Oa Neen a 2 s5 5 oni lom cloe 2
rolls ADs CP eee ee ee esas 1
Onetelet, (Prot. TA ceo. ~ ae ee se 5
Hadlkoter. (rise isos cea eee aa Q
INAMSA ys ECOLyAG Bt see ween J
VATILIN EONS otis stent os choice See 1
HravMNsOn: Wiese eosler sce cece em eae ait
HCN MALOM ade Meee teh eee slocscitees 3
AON Aeke ener SOT e es States. - Sele 1
ichsiGson; Pll Uecteescssact = coe Se i
Ritter von “Hater, "2 ons oe 1
robin, O 2223 e5Nere set see ese 1
ossmasslers Prof. He Ayes: 2 Co 4e22: 160
Rother sess" crckes eco he ee 2
Rowe ;d>-brookine +b. - See te. 2
Hab CHdess- Fs uke si ee 1
Sandberverb rots -22ttesoeeeee a 1
SAMNNENiO WONG. 2A. .t eee eee ee sees 3
SAHSSure: Crh. Oss LtlK Sheen ee 52
NSLEISEX21 002) pill © (ey eee mie Meat need Tes 94
BCH POUSCHNH NG... noel mee 3
Denatiiy Oto 2. ccc See eee 6
MCU AUMISS Ne EIUW = 'cncSe-o see e eee = 92
Schlechtendal, Prof. von.--.---.---- 12
Menlercher eA kis £2 ok Lees ena o
Sehmide DnB h 2s a: s acme eee 3

Name.

Schmidt, Dr. J. F. J
Schonfeld; “Drghreen. see ete
Schroeder van der Kolk, Prof....----
Schultz, Drs. C. H. and F.
Scrope, G. P
DEC Chi ARP errs cena a mearnsii ee
Sedlaczek, Lieutenant E..........---
Seonitz; J0r. ih-5 heer = nan ieee
Serroners ar Ais eek eye eee ee
Smyth, Rear-Admiral.-....-.-

SP Ulery; Eenmms ate aie tt sce hee ee eee
Stabile; Prot. Abbe dao. secon see ee
taco aDy: We. Eo! cempunee oe
Steezk@wski\ Profeccooces. seek cee
DleeDsttp, Ji, Sato woe an eee es
PtOcKHATdhy Lote ae Ae eee
MLOPPCIBAT, 1.6. oni once cce asin sin
Struck, (Ce ee hee acck oc ee Ree ee
SILGss a LOtee scree ase sisicie sere eee

‘Dhalény. Tes ivcsscieyes ace oe eae ees
ThomsoniiG!Giie28 oe nls eset ce see
Tkalac, Dr. E. von
Mornay Ors Caceres cee eee
WYAVOrS) Ico cee cto cones ae eee
DraitsehsDr. vanes asse oe ee ees eee

Mallardi- Drs Be ceadesces ceceeeccee
Marores, 0 0yAs Wierd eee crete
Metter, Or PG. Ay a Vo Ree
Will pean ihe Gr cds ees eas rated te
Virchows Ricle ten niiakt Set eee oe eee
Volpieell,, Prot. Biot oo eocece eee
Wortisch io. iene eee eer
Wadia, "Rs Heo oie eee aeeemere

Weigely TS@ sen ve4= ne) msec ene
Weinland, Dr.
Weisbach, “Jo 22- 2.3 REE in 5 Fg ol
Weitenweber, Dr: U:; N..=----...-.:
Westwood) J. O:2 2.32 sates eea ere
Wihewell ir Wi sees csc see
Whistling sO aces tees hassel eee
Wolfe Dri eek naa e sad cee See
Zeller,

A
°

=
OV OD EOD et OUT RO et ES

cs
hal Bae HONDO e wr OH

i =
VT PK DWV Wa DewokHHEwHwe

—o— ons

on
AAR Woe ww

LIST OF METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

FOR THE YEAR 1864.

Name of observer.

BRITISH AMERICA.

Baker, J. C
Clarke, Lawrence, jr----.-
Delaney, Edward M. J....

Magnetic Observatory. -- -.
MPELINCLO Clee (ope oy cree ye Siete 6 whee
iMankin, Colin. -.--..-.--.-

MEXICO.
Laszlo, Charles ---........

Sartorius, Dr. Charles
Nieto, Jos6 A...--.-..----

CENTRAL AMERICA.
Lina iiten! (Oa bes res eee ae
White, William T., M. D.-

WEST INDIES.
United States Consul..-..-
Julien, Alexis A.-... eae

BERMUDA.
Royal Engineers, (in the
Royal Gazette.)
SOUTH AMERICA,

IPT PS Cal ao cach mines a

colony of Surinam, Dutch Guiana,

* A signifies Barometer, Thermometer, Psychrom-

eter, and Rain Gauge.
B signifies Barometer,
T signifies Thermometer,

P signifies Psychrometer.
R signifies Rain Gauge.

N signifies no instrument.

t Above Lake Ontario,

oS 3 2
rg = “ =
= ma :
ae a |g
Station. , = a oF g 5 >
a 3 3 ee cars
5 $ 5 % 37
A a a A 14
beat gyal Feet.
Wolfville, Nova Scotia.........--.. 45 06 | 64 25 Oo VAC eco eats 8
Stanbridge, Canada Wast......-.... 508i 73O0 ieee seec Pee hee 12
Fort a /2/Corme; Saskatchewan’: -2-|-25-.0-4)-ss-eg-sloede- er BE sregsetse 2
Colonial Building, St. John’s, New- | 47 35 | 52 40 1707) SB. PREY g
foundland.
Toronto, Canada West..-.---.-.--- 43 39 | 79 21 TORS) *Ace a tee 12
Si. conn New! Brimpyicks 222% at sale lele Sanje acl eee onleboateeke oe BPO. Ree 7
Michipicoton, Canada West......--- 47 56 | 85 06 6601 hs teen 12
San Juan Bautista, Tabasco.-...... 17 47 | 92 36 40) ACs = sao 7
Mirador, Vera Cruz ...---..-..----- TOTS 3 96125 wih 3,600") Aldo. see 10
Cordova, Vera Cruz....------....-.- 1B 08) ees eeetecesasas dS pad Boye 12
San Jos€, Costa Rica........-..---- 9) 540(84..06)1 3)772) | DRI e. il
ENON PN Ca ee Sa ed RAS QE A 19 Oa abte\er we Fe nis 6
Turkisiisland!)2 Os ee ue ees tes SB OOU eco tne a samecie me neem emer 7
Soulbrero Wsland seep. aseis = = in 18 35 63 27 OW AS sets 3 3
Centre Signal Station, Saint George’s.|........|.....--.|-- pce at EME Ae 12
Government Plantation Rustenberg, |....-.-.|.--..---|-------- agen 6

102

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

List of meteorological stations and observers, &c.—Continued.

Name of observer.

CALIFORNIA,

Canfield, Colb’t A., M. D-

EL Sys Wiel) cot lees mere =
Logan, Thomas M., M. D-
Parkinson, David F.-..-.--

Sraith Mire, Deas 2.
COLORADO.
Luttrell, James........-..
CONNECTICUT.
Hunt, Rey. Daniel..--...--
Johnston, Prof. John
Learned, Dwight W...---
Leavenworth, D.C

Rockwell, Charlotte. -
Yeomans, William H...-..

DELAWARE.
Hedges, Urban D., M. D-.
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
Smithsonian Institution. --
FLORIDA.
Dennis, William C.....---
IDAHO.

Collins, Col. W. O..-..-s--
Finfrock, J.H., M.D..--.

ILLINOIS.

FNTAINS Wt EL. 5 coats ce Se
Aldrich, Verry
IBBDCOCK A En esemna cece
Ballou, N. E., M.D
Bandelier, Adolphus F., jr
Brendel, Frederick, M. D.
Brookes, Samuel
Byrne, Arthur M......--.
Dudley, Timothy--......-.
PEST ORIN Uiaccebreck metal
Grant, Pobn. 2... 2.2.25 ;
Grant, Miss Ellen...-.-.-

Griffing, Henry...........
Langworthy, A.D
Livingston, Prof. William.
Mead, 8. B.; M.D..-.. .--
Merwin, Mrs. Emily H..--
Morrison, William H.-.....
RVGO Te Mone ch oe pte
Phelps, E.
IRADLOts eee atest eae oo
Scovill, Homer W..------
Tolman, James W--------

Trible, Mrs. Anna C.-----
INDIANA.

Anderson, Henry H..-----
Burroughs, Reuben
Boerner, Charies G-.-----
Butterfield, W. W.-------

Station.

Monterey-.-..---
Meadow Valley. -
Santa Barbara. --
Sacramento......
Presidio of San
Francisco.
Spanish Ranche. -

Montgomery. -.-.

Pomfret... .e lee
Plymouth........
New Haven
Colebrook .......
Columbia.....-.-

Wilmington

see--

Washington
Key West

se eeeee

Fort Laramie....

Fort Halleck. .... |

He ay A A

WeOllarecceeeeee
Chicago
Chicagol
Jacksonville... -.
Hoylton.--_...-.

Manchester-......

Augusta..2-2-= 2.
Ottawal--s2s 542:
Evanston.-......
Clintons = see

Pekin

Winnebago De-

pot.
Upper Alton.....

Vevay

Indianapolis... .-.

County.

Monterey.....---
Plumas: 2 So" -5-
Santa Barbara. - -

Windham
Middlesex
Litchfield........
New Haven
Litchfield. ....-.-
Tolland

atte ee eee ew ewe nee

MeHenry2e-ce-= =
Deieal boas -s ses
Madison........-

Morgan....... ee
Washington

St. Joseph. .----
Switzerland .....
WemonweS.Sae re

3 g z
3 2 z oa
= ‘&p a oo
5 5 2 ae
= 2 ay q ae
2 2 D = o3
8 = 3 B 3
Z S Hy q A
On pet Feet.
36 36 | 121 54 40| T.P.R.. 10
40 15 | 12015 | 3,700} T.P.R-.
34 35 | 119 40 30 | B.T.R.-
38 35 | 121 28 Ala UATE ae
37 48 | 122 22 |.....-.. ALenL
39 56 | 120 40 | 3,700| B.T.R--
39 00 | 106 00 | 13,000 | T......-.- 5
41 52) 72023 SOT Aber oes 12
41 32] 72 39 175°) Ae 12
AAO (erSt03)| kee pte eet 5
41 18 72 56 46) BS Prsss2
42 00 | 73 06 |....--.. Te eet ah 7
43 401) 72)42 | Lp ee 12
39 47 75 33 115+} POR. Ss RW
38 53 77 O1 60!) SAlo ce ae 12
24 33 | 81 28 16 | B. T.B.. 2
42) 10) 10447)" 4.472) 1-2-2 - 9
PEO Reco Generic: De aoe ae 4
eed Bie) Goi Rigeceone 6
4115] 89 66 550) ila 12
4211 | 88 20 760 |) 'T. Ris. 12
41 31 | 88 30 665 | T.R..-- 12
38 45 | 89 46°)... 9...) BL Pe 3
40 43 | 89 30 460 | A 12
42 00 | 87 30 600 | 'T... 12
41 57 | 87 38 591 | B. 1
39 30 | 90 06 676 | T.R..... 12
SR Oued G0) bennett Tope 10
3933 | 9034] 683 | A...-...- 12
39/008" OO) ais Waal saee 12
42 02 | 87 38 588 | B.T....- 1
2a A RMON i ut ge Aerts | Sane
4010} 9100] *203|T.P.R..] 12
41 20] 88 47 500 | T.R....- 11
42 02] 87 38 590 | B. T..-.. 3
40 09 | 88 58 |...--.-. BT... 1
41 30°|°"89 45'|-.....2- T. Riss 4
40 36 | 89 45 |_....... B.T.R. 12
42 02} 87 38 570 | B. T. R.- 2
4217| 89 12 900} B.T.R..| 12
3900" 1". '89''36.|- 2222 ‘Aj Shona 2
36 00 | 8700] 1,100 | T:R..... 1
41 39 | 86 71 600 | T. R..--. 12
38 46 |) 84 59 |....---- mB. 3
39 45 | 86 20 iso hi tad bee 3

* Above low-water mark at Quincy.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

103

List of meteorological stations and observers, §c.—Coutinued.

Name of observer.

INDIANA—Continued.

Chappellsmith, John..-..-.
Collins, Rev. Samuel
GrozierfDr. FE. S..------
Dawson. William.-.-....---
Griest, John... 2--..
Hobbs, William Henry - --
Loughridge, J. H., M. D--
Mayhew, Royal
Redding, Thomas B..----
Eve 1384 eae se es ae

IOWA,

Briggs, Rev. E. L.....----
Chamberlain, John...----
Collin, Prof. Alonzo
PRSCNE VIF IO sac coke in
Dorweiler, Philip.--..-...
10} oi (ee 108s he eee oe
Farnsworth, P.J., M.D--
Foster, Suel.....- ees es
Hore asa M.D. 225-2...
McConnel, Townsend ....
McCoy, Franklin, M. D- }
McCoy, Miss Elizabeth. -

McCready, Daniel..-.-.--
Mead, Chauncey
Parvin, Prof. Theodore §-
Stebbins, Richard....-...
(Sieber Ge] O00 aed eS eae
Townsend, Nathan..-...--
Walton, Josiah P........-
Wheaton, Alex. Camp-.--..

KANSAS.

Beckwith, W..--..-------
Drew, F. P., M. D., U.S.A.
Fuller, Arthur N......-..
Denison, Henry L.....--.
Soule, W. L. G...-..------

KENTUCKY.

Caldwell, R.H...........
Young, Mrs. Lawrence... -

MAINE,

Brackett, Geo. Emerson. ..
Dane Wim Doo sea oS.
Gardiner, Rev. Frederick -
Gupill GoWes.--22.-2 4:
MaGOre; A Ral Peek eo Sle
Osgood, Henry H..-..---.
Parkers) Ds: iss asecc sas

Pitman, Edwin......... ;

Eiiman, Marks... s.5220.
West OlIna yee fe Se
Wilbur, Benjamin F.-.-.-.

MARYLAND.

Baer, Miss Harriott M....
Dutton, Prof. J. Russell. .-
Gillingham, Warrington -.
Goodman, William R....-.
Lowndes, Benjamin O-...
Stephenson, Rey. James..
Tabb, Philip

Station. County.

New Harmony...} Posey ..---------
Madison.......-- JehersOn =<. = =.
New Albany..... Mlovde soon ceo
Spiceland.....-.- EL Gn toes mein =
Pennville-......- ay Re See anes
Bloomingdale....) Parke.......--..
Rensselaer. ------ DAS POM terse naps
Indianapolis. .... Marionec ede.
Newcastle. .....- Hentyao.- sc 4
Muncie. ...-....- Delaware......--
Mount Pleasant..| Henry.-...-.-.-.
Davenport....... SCO ee sae a. 3.
Mount Vernon:..} Ginn..-)-.)..-- =.
Independence....} Buchanan. .-..--
Guttenburg....-.. Glaytonee os.
Waterloo........ Black Hawk..-.-.
WYVONSsie 4S. 2 <5 Clinton, 2.22... :
Muscatine,....-.- Muscatine ..-..--
Dubuque. --.-...-. Dubuque...--.--
Pleasant Plain-..| Jefferson........
Alpongsssenasen Kossuth 22 ..< 22.
Fort Madison. --.} Lee -.--------.-.
Monticello.-..-.- LONERPs = oes arn
Iowa City -...-.. Johnson.-..-..-.
Qnowa.---- 2.525 Monona. 2 Sosa
Waterloo..-.:.-- Black Hawk...-.
Towa Falls--...-. Rardin tee. eee
Muscatine... -..--- Muscatine. ...---
Independence....} Buchanan. ....--.
Olathac.. 2.65 -.. JOHNSON 5-25 2-4:
WOLD Gyre catia tee ues ese
Lawrence ......- Douclagt=) ssc.
Manhattan. .-.-.-- Rileyeetecer ss
Lawrence -.-...--- Douglas...-...-

Danville......... Boyle .22,)2--- =
Louisville -...... Jefferson. --..-..
(Belfast sapien - Waldo: -rsest
North Perry--.-.-. Washington ...-.
Gardiner .-..---- Kennebec. ---.---.
Gomishville. 2 5.) Morkooaen 25.
PAsbone eet. Androscoggin .. - -
Blaehul so 2. Hancoekys..:/-<.
Steuben. ....--.5- Washington ..-..
Sebeces ces. 22: Piscataquis. ...--
dees ioyoseeer sos Penobscot -.--.--
Boxcroftso- 2222 Piscataquis--...-
Gomish- 22. -J2-02 WMorkeisesif 2...
West Waterville-| Kennebec -....--
Sykesville. ...... Carroleeee ooo.
Chestertown. .... Eerie yale co saais ie
Union Bridge....| Carroll....-..--.
Annapolis.....-. Anoe Arundel...
Bladensburg. .-.. Prince George’s. -
St. Inigoes.....-. St. Mary’s -....-.
Ellicott’s Mills-..| Howard.........

No. of months

Instruments,

received,

g z
5 S
pat “& .
ie 8 on
° b <
Z e tH
Dyk Orn! Feet.
38 08 87 50 320
38 45 Spun ee sees
38 02 85 29 353
39 48} 8518] 1,025
41 30 peta (010 WM aca Se ot ek
39 48 87 00 *150
"39 55| 8660| 698
39 55 85 27 1, 000
40 12 85) QO eee eee
MOO VONs SBil Saeco
41 30 90 40 737
42 00 OU NOs 26 ler
42 30 92 16 850
aa AO lo gach (Spee sae)
41 50 90 10 401
41 26 U2 Ag 01) eee Spa
42 30 90 52 666
41 07 94 54 950
43 O1 94 04 1, 500
40 37 (3) Sl (Ee eee
42.13 91 15 880
AT Sls 2 eee ee 621
42 00 SOM | sokecaee
42 30 bo PIs)! Ba age
2 32 GEO cn coaares
41 25 92 02 582
42 29 GH SO F is a srerserere
BO OO) 9443 oS cee
39 00 | 9630 | 1,300
38 58 95 13 970
39 13 96 45 1, 000
38 58 | 9513 970
"38 07| 8524 | 570

BA 23) GO) OB alr aroeteets
45 00} 67 06 100
44°41] 69 46 90
43 40} 70 44 800
44 00] 70 04 130
44 25 | 68 34 50
44 44 | 67 50 50
AWA GOS) oso. 2
43 40] 70 44 784
39 23 | 76 57 700
OM PON OD) [ora ou are
38 59 | 76 29 20
38 57 | 76 58 112
38 10 | 76 41 45

« Height above Wabash river,

—

er
Wi DWRRDW

104

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

List of meteorological stations and observers, §:c.—Continued.

Name of observer.

MASSACHUSETTS,

Astronomical Observatory.
Barrows, N., M. D...-.---

Caldwell, John H.... -- ;

Davis, Rev. Emerson..--.
Dewhurst, Rev. Eli-.....-
Halon, JOnn = 228. -5-.--
Merriam, Arthur M.-...---
Metealf, John Geo., M. D..
Brentiss, Henry C., M. D..
Rodman, Samuel.---....-.
Snell, Prof, E.S....--...-
Tappan, Eugene ....-.--.

MICHIGAN.

Bllis, Edwin, M. D.--..-.--
Kodzies Prof: RiiC..2 22...
Mapes. Henry H-.-...---
elds fed 1S Bee eee See
Van Orden, William, jr---
Weeks, James A.....-...
Wohelpley, Miss Florence E.
wWroeodaerd’'C. So... oceicace

MINNESOTA.

Cheney, William
Graver MarysAc-2-- <=.)
Kilgore, William
Paterson, Rev. A. B., D.D-
Roos, Charles s-5<..5-2-~-
Smith, Henry L.-...-...---
Wyaelani Orem oe cieesiniae

MISSISSIPPI.
McCary, Robert.-......-.

MISSOURI.

Engelmann, George, M. D.
Fendler, Augustus ....-.--
Lunemann, John £—., 8. J-
air WV liam os< oe 5 cs ~
iRigy, George Pes oo.
Ripleyssibecen os ene er

NEBRASKA,

Bowen, Miss Anna M. J...
Hamilton, Rey. William --

NEW HAMPSHIRE,

Brown, Branch....--.....
Ghase Arthurs: 4. 2-6 ect.
Mead, Stephen O......-..
Nason, Rev. Elias.....--.
Odell, Fletcher. ..-....-..
Pitman, Charles H.-..-----
Smith, Rufas-.---.....<--
Whiting, Robert C.....-.-.

NEW JERSEY.

Beans, Thomas J..-...-..
Brooks, William-...... ae
Deacon, John C....-...--
Lippincott, James §..-.---
Rhees, Morgan J., M. D-..

Station.

Williamstown. - --
Sandwich
opsield.- 22...
Newbury. -------
Westfield.-....--.

Worcester--.-...-
New Bedford ..-..
Amberst. <-2o-.5-
West Dennis... ---

Ganlicks<>s.--=4-
Lansing -...-..-.-
Oshtemoson <6. 2
Eo Mand (seo cck cite
Clifton
POntaeznce ans
Monroe: ..--.---
Ypsilanti....-....

Minneapolis
Temaracke co.--
Mankato
St. Paul

Forest City....--.
Beaver Bay...---

Natchez... 5...

Harrisonville -.-.
Sti thoniss ss 220-8
Si. Toowish se...
Si. Lieuis.t. 3. = -5
Laborville-.---.---
Canton See oe =
Easton

Elkhorn City --.-.
Bellevue

Stratford
Claremont-.--..-
Claremont-.--..-
Exeter
Shelburne .--..-.-
North Barnstead.
North Littleton --
Litileton.........

Passaic Valley. -.
Burlington. ...---
Cole’s Landing...
Mount Aolly.....

County.

Hampden........
Wrorcenter.s-222%

Worcester......-
ISTISTOL oe eee os
Hampshire
Barnstable. .....-

Ontonagon
Inghamie 22. 2s. 3:
Kalamazoo ---.--
Keweenaw .-..-.
Oaklandi.. cs:

Washtenaw....-.

Hennepin......--
Hennepin........
Blue Earth

Sullivan. 2/220020%

Piven. Jo Le5 eS Oe een ee eee eee oes

Rockingham.....
Of ya ee ae
Belknap. ...---..
Grafton
Grafton

Burlington. ..-..-
PaRgait ss saseces
Burlington
Camden

West longitude,

North latitude.

Instrumonta.

oreee

tee neee

No. of months

received.

METEOROLOGIOAL OBSERVERS.

List of meteorological stations and observers, §c.—Continued.

105

Name of observer.

NEW JERSEY—Continued.

Sheppard, Clarkson
Thompson, George W...-.
Whitehead, W. A..-..----

NEW YORK.

Arden, Thomas B.....-...
Aubier, Rev. Jno. M., 8. J-
Barrows, Storrs
Bartlett, Erastus B.-..-.-.-
Beauchamp, Wm. M...---
Bowman, John.....--.-..
Gowing, Philo. 2... 225-252.
LOL See eae
Denning, William H..-...
Dewey, Prof. Chester ....
Fuller, Robert M-..---.-

Swart, Harmon V..--.- }
Gardiner, James H. .....-
Gregory, SS): O.r. 223...
Heimstreet, John W.-..--
Holmes, Dr. E.S
Howell, Robert
Hunt, Geo. M
Hyde, Stephen. ..j52--.....
Ingalsbe, Grenville M....-
Mack, Rev. Eli T......-..
Teor. PogAl se oe...
Malcom, Wm. Schtiyler- .-
Mathews, M. M., M. D-....
Morris, Prof. Oran W..-..
Paine, EH. MVM D. i228.
Bratt. (anielwe. so cees
Roe, Rev. San. W., M. D. -
Rogers, Francis M......-.
Russell, Cyrus H
fispeish LU SAD). ee a
Spooner, Dr. Stillman..-.
Trowbridge, David -...--
NYinite: (Aaron. = .52. 05...
Willis, Oliver R..:.....-.
Wilson, Rey. W. D., D. D-

OHIO. °

Abell (Baws. sks )2ee 2s
Alvord, David S
Bambach, Dr. @ -.--..---.
Benner, Josiah F........-
Crane, George W-:-.)..--.
Mole; JaGe 22/25 22 peat
Engelbrecht, Lud
Fraser, James B,-..-.-.-.
Hammitt, John W...---.- |
Harper, George W....----
Haywood, Prof. John ....|
Huntington, George C.-.--.
Hyde, Gustavus A.-....

Te MOS sere eye Oe See |
Larsh, Thomas J.-.......
MeMillan, Smith B.-.....-.
Mathews, Joseph McD....
Myers, POun ety kee ae
Newton, Rey. Alfred.....
Phillips, R. C. and J. H.. --
Ttanikin, Ws sees |
RodrersivAw Po 5 ete

Scheuber, Hubert A....-.
Thompson, Rev. David. --
Thompson. Prof. H. A....
Trembley, J. B., M. D...-.

Station.

Greenwich......-
New Brunswick -
Newarksaos202hi:

Baldwinsville. ...
Seneca Falls-....
Auburn
Fishkill Landing.
Rochester

Schenectady...-.

Newburg
Theresa

Nichols
North Argyle-...
Palmyra
South Hartford ..
Flatbush
Port'Ann?:.....-
Oswego
Rochester ..-----
New York......-
Clinton

Jamestown
Throg’s Neck..-.
Gouverneur
Moriches
Oneida
Perry City-o2 52
Cazenovia .--....
White Plains ....
Geneva . ....-...

Welshfield-.....-
Austinburg . -.-.
Ripley
New Lisbon
Bethel. .--.--...:
Austinburg . ..--
Portsmouth. -...-.
Saybrook. ....-..
College Hill
Cincinnati
Kingston
Kelley’s Island. -.

Cleveland

Eaton
Bast Fairfield...
Hillsborough -...
Smithville
Norwalk
Cincinnati
Cuyahoga Falls-.
Gallipolis..-...--.-
Centralia .-..-.-..
Milnersville.....-
Westerville - ....
Toledo

wwe ere eee

County.

Cumberland
Middlesex
Tessex

mee mene eee

Oswego
Onondaga
Onondaga
Seneca vere!
Cayuga

Monnoee jasenci-
Schenectady... ..

Orange
Jefferson
Rensselaer. ...-.--
Niagara
Tioga
Washington
Wiayneseecuss-ue
Washington
Ligh ee AR eeu
Washington

Oneida
Chautauqua
Chautauqua
Westchester
St. Lawrence....
Suttolke-ussee ue
Madison

Schuyler
Madison
Westchester
Ontario:.-2.06..

Geauga
Brown
Columbiana
@lermont 2) 22222.
Ashtabula
Sciota
Ashtabula .......
Hamilton! pest
Hamilton. coon.

Preble
Columbiana
Highland: 502. .-

Marion
Guernsey - ------
Franklin
Lucas

oO o
As F
ee Z
a ‘ a
= 8 “3 I
cs S ise =
5 3 ra h
A ee z cS
ere bone Feet.
39 20] 75 25 30 ||) Baler.
40 30| 75 31 CO) it ee
40 45 | 74 10 35 | BOT Red
41 22| 74 02 beloved te eh eed
AQ Aa 73059 Metra ae Ate se ate
4310| 74 56 835 | TR... ..
43 26 | 77 26 Dipl Ue oe
43 00 | 76 30 5520 a sah (a
ZB Doo Wn gic aioe ee Tee tak:
42 54| 7651 463) |) BaD oss
42 55 | 76 28 650 Tee
41 29 | 73 59 42 | B.T.R.-
43 08 | 77 51 516) sn aon
FO ASIN MeRWOD «| carom ueaee EM al
AIP SIN oe Tae OU Poot iB, kee
4412] 75 48 365) |aleeeeus
42 44] 73 37 SULA ieee
43 20 | 78 56 S50 Dy wesee
42 00) 76 32 |.......- Mee ae
43 00 | 72 29 290 | B. T.R.-
43 04 | 77 20 466) |W Tinee tee
43 15 | ~73 21 A0O) Me Rane
40 37 | 74 02 54| B.T.R.-
4239 | 7344] 1,430] T.R..-.-
43 2 76 30 250 | B. T.R.-
43 08 | 77 51 BO Au gana
40 43] 74 05 Cis ee
43 03| 75 15 600 | T. P.R--
ADIGE GONQA) | ai sis Wa Se
4206} 7919] 1,454] T.R..-..
40 49 | 73 50 TWIG 1 EE
4419) 075 OO nh el Bh aier
40 49 | 72 36 134 | Raeee
43 04 | 75 50 (0/6 el ful ie +9
42 3 716,55°\|| 1,000) | Nuiw tees
497551 75 464 1,260) Al i222:
ATE OSu Ped Ol eee eee ides eee
42 53 | 77 02 567 | B. T. R--
ANCOS | SOIT Oe | T/QOsu le Mly ee eeee
41 54 | 80 52 816 | B. T.R.-
38 47 | 83 31 eLOG\| Aton sees
40 45 | 80 45 961 | B. T.R--
39 00 | 84 00 Estitst feud Dns ae
41 54} 80 52 Sigaleb lake.
38 42! 82 36 537) | B.D. Ren
sien ie Se an [Peo oe T. Re
39 19 | 84 26 800 | T.R -
39 06 | &4 27 50 0nd Aicnek esc
39 29 | 83 00 GOD OMe see
41 36 | 82 42 587 | Bat. Re:
41 30] 81 40 643 | B. T.R--
AQOONI ee LOON IA heSOOM De wees
AQVAT lM BON Adal tet 525 Ad oes
oo Mee onary es el eA eens
40 52| 81 51 984° | Meee
Pa ins iliietseo 5 0a eye ie sae
39 06| 84 27 540 | B. T. R.-
AD GOny Sln00s| see 2. Tee
39 00} 82 00 600! Te R es
pee a ETA Eee [be a ae
ADMOWaG SIV 45h | 2 oso oe ae ae
40704} 8300 |... 2.22. 7 EAL 4
41 39| 82 32 604 | B. T.R.

* Above low water in the Ohio river,

No. of months
received.

106

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

List of meteorological stations and observers, §c.—Continued.

Instruments.

No. of months

received.

= S
& ist
ie PS
Name of observer. Station. County. 3 Fl
be S
be m
° Oo
A =
OHnIO—Continued.
OF °
Williams, Prof. M.G. ....| Urbana .........| Champaign. ....| 4006] 83 43
Walson, Prof. J. H.------- College Hill b 84 25
Winchester, E. D.- .--| Austinburg 80 52
Winger, Martin.........- Wooster........- 81 57
OREGON.
Hindman, S. M. W...----- Avtburn sens nes ss BakOP ae caes «ee 44 45 | 118 16
Amburn enn --pi<e AKON - cea oe oe AGTSTN ace cette te ene
MBIlEN seed ones Marion coenes-! = 44 56 | 123 01
UO PR) cease <te'g = 40) «We SsBese Abs See eqaba SHaaseo baobame.
Blairsville -.....- Indiana 74 43
-| Silver Spring....| Lancaster -. 76 45
-| Fleming .-...... Centre 77 53
Westchester ..... Chester 75 36
Eachers, Homer - ....-... Philadelphia..... Philadelphia .. .-| 39 57 | 75 10
Dirpert, JOON! soc. csemns ce Berwick: 7205.5. Columbia....---- 4105} 76 15
Menton vMhsha..-2226.<c~'- Grampian Hills ..| Clearfield . .....-. 4100} 78 40
Hance, Ebenezer......... Morrisville......- Bucks: 222 is82 4012] 74 48
Heisely, Dr. John ....-... Harrisburg .....- Dauphin .:....-. 4016} 7615
PCO racae ceca cm se Harrisburg ...-.- Dauphin ......-- 40 20} 76 50
Hoffer, Dr. Jacob R..---- Mount Joy .....- Lancaster ..--... 40 08} 76 30
Jacobs, Rev. M...-.....
SAREE ot kee Gettysburg ...... Adams .......-.. 39 49 | 77 15
Kirkpatrick, Prof. Jas. A..| Philadelphia-..... Philadelphia -. ..} 39 57} 75 10
Kohler, Edward......-.--- North Whitehall.} Lehigh --......-- 40 40 | 75 26
Martindale, Isaac C,.-.--- Byberry..-...... Philadelphia .. ..} 40 05] 75 00
Ae Y euipean sa } Germantown: 422. |yPhiladelphia).g 6-1) - stein cele cae eels t= = =
Moyer HO. caeoeleset lens Williamsport ....| Lycoming -.-..-- 4119} 7705
Ricksecker, Lucius E..-.-.. Nazareth ........ Northampton.-..| 40 43 | 75 21
Smith, Wm. D.D......2. Cannonsburg ....| Washington ..... 40 16} 8010
Spencer, Miss Anna...--- Horsham "2s. 5. Montgomery...-. 40 00} 7511
wavlor, JORM ..---522e66 Connellsville ....| Fayette -.......- 40 00} 79 36
Weeks, James A.......... Oil City, soc eeene > Wenane@ Reeser eeeer oes) neees ee eee eoee
RHODE ISLAND.
Caswell, Prof. Alexis ..... Providence .....- Providence 41 49
SheldonjHo Gos. oscc< cee Providence ...... Providence 4150} 712
SOUTH CAROLINA.
Abert, Major James W.,
U.S. engineers. S <
Suter, Capt.C. R., U.S. Hilton Head..... Beaufort .. ...---| 3214] 80 40
engineers.
March? Mine’ © > ----7 3} Beaufort .,..0--| Beanfort ..a-.---|) 32/20.) 60 46
TENNESSEE.
Blaker, DriG. He.22--2.. Chattanooga..... Harrison: oS escac tassel] sieecesas|ainisiow eee
Stewart, Prof. Wm. M....| Clarksville -....- Montgomery..... 36 28 | 8713
UTAH.
Pearce, Harrison .... .--- St. George....... Washington ..... 37 00 | 114 00
PhelpSe we Wiss2- cosveess Salt Lake ....... Salt Lake ...---. 40 45 | 111 26
Siber, Andrew L......-.. Vineland = occ. sac Wiashineton ics yee eae saar esos fone seee
VERMONT.
Buckland, David-....-... Brandon .......-
Cutting, Hiram A........ Lunenburg .-.-..
Mead, Stephen O.......-. Rutland. Soar
Paddock, James A.....-.- Craftsbury .....-.
Petty, Mek. Fy once Burlington ......
(Calaipie ces (isc

Tobey, James K.......-..

me 08

11

10

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. 107

List of meteorological stations and observers, &c.—Continued.

3 2 a
= 5 a sia
= a q 35
Name of observer. Station. County. r & ‘ g ae
i Wee Wr | ac E | es
~ m2 — — on)
B oO © a en
4 Ee ee A 4
WASHINGTON,
Ovi ee Feet.
Swan, James G....--..--. Neeoh Bay ..-..-|--.-.+----+------- 26 41 | 124 37 40) trae ne ll
WISCONSIN.
Breed, J. Everett ..-...... Embarass .....-- Waupacca.....-- 44-51) 88 87 fe ssesee. Tease 12
Curtis, W. W2-t--=-.2-.- Rocky Run....-- Columbia...-..-- ASV2G so BOO We so ba Reso ono 12
Dec’ner, Friedrick ...... Green Bay .-.--- STOW rom ce stierata 44 29) 88 00 U2 o Ee Bos aaie 12
Eddy, Levens: ..-...-:-.- Delavan: --=---- - Walworth.....-. 42 39 | 8&8 37 ETN Ale crataaita 4
Ellis, Edwin, M. D.-..--.-- Odanaheg 25-25 -- Ashland (> 2-0/2 46 33; 91 00 C104). Re eee 2
Picks IO seo see eos Lebanon -...-...-- Waupaca.......- 4424) 88 42]........ us ea 3
Lapham, Iner’se A., LL. D| Milwaukee -.-.---- Milwaukee .-...-- 43 03 | 87 59 fo 2 Yee 12
Manitowoe ....-.- 12
Waupaca...--. 12
Porter, Henry D..-.------- Beloit ..-..---26. 12
Sterling, Prof. John W..-..| Madison ......... 6
WVait, MOC. es oe occ Baraboo......... 2
Whiting, Wm. H......-.- Geneva -....---- ay
Winkler, Carl, M.D.--.--- Milwaukee ...-.. 12
Woods, William...-..--... Weyauwega..... 5

Deaths of observers.

John H. Lunemann, §S. J., St. Louis, Missouri, 1864.
David Buckland, Brandon, Vermont, July 19, 1864.

Colleges and other institutions from which meteorological registers were received
during the year 1864, encluded in the preceding list.

Novasseotia.--5.--.. -<--'- Acadia College... 22. 2c 2922 22. | Wolfville,
OS UE Ts RR iy BR eS es Dep Magnetic Observatory. ...-..----.------- Toronto.
Conmnectiont . ..2-ss22-s-se5- Wesleyan \University,-<-2---s5282s'2 9.52 == Middletown.
OIG ake eos ionas ogee Lombard University... /--------.+-:-----| Galesbure.
University of Chicago.........-.-.-..---| Chicago.
POW Aeatom sat oo stace seo. Cornell College.--.-......--..-.-.-.----| Mount Vernon.
Griswold College-. ....-.-.-.-----------.| Davenport.
Iowa State University...........-.-.----| Iowa City.
Blaby land Fob oi seetes no! 4 ~ Washington College ......-.-...--------| Chestertown.
Massachusetts .-...----.--- Amberst College:..5......2.-.....--<.-}, Amherst,
State Lunatic Hospital........---.------| Worcester.
Williams’, College --..-.-.-2..5-----+:--| Williamstown:
DRICMIGAI 2. Since 2 <duc cam eke State Agricultural College .......-.-.-.--| Lansing.
LORS es SSN eae aca Ye St. Louis University... -..22--22--..----| St. Louis,
BOW IP ORs aon owe) cas ee Institution for Deaf and Dumb.-..-...-.--| New York,
Erasmus Hall Academy -..-.-.----------| Flatbush.
St. Francis Xavier’s College.......-.-.-.| New York.
University of Rochester -....-.-..-------| Rochester.
Pete ee eee a eles stent Marmers Collere 2... ...-2cesage-------| College Hill,
Otterbein Universit7......-.-.-.--------| Westerville.
‘Urbana: University. -'..----s<2-=--------| Urbana
Woodward High School.......-.--------| Cincinnati.
Oreeon si. Ee wsded ato S cee: Willamette University.......-.--..------| Salem.
Pennsylvania... 22<5'¢ 5-4: Central High School ....-...-.--..------| Philadelphia.
Jefferson College ...-...-. -.-----.---.--| Cannonsburg,
Rhode Island.-----4.-.---. Brown University ....-.---.---.--------] Providence.
MGRHESSEGn's doe niin. ae aLt Stewart College -..-. 22.25. ...----.-.--| Clarksville:
Mermtont's_ 0c eae aaa University of Vermont ......-.-.-.-.----| Burlington.
Wisconsin 025. 5 sais elimi tcallemncs seer ee! | Beloit

Wisconsin University -..-.-.-.----------| Madison.

s

108 METEOROLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS.

METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL CONTRIBUTED IN ADDITION TO THE REGULAR
OBSERVATIONS.

Aargauische Naturforschende Gesellschaft—Witterungs beobachtungen in
Aarau, (Switzerland,) 1864.

Bailey, F. J—See Herschel.

Barrows, N., M. D—Summary of observations at Sandwich, Massachusetts,
for the year 1864.

Barrows, Storrs—Summary of observations at South Trenton, New York,
for the year 1864. Reported by Storrs Barrows, for the Trenton Union Agri-
cultural Society.

Bartlett, Erastus B—Summary of observations at Palermo, New York, for
the year 1864, and a comparison with the preceding eleven years.

Chase, Pliny Earle—On the Principal Causes of Barometric Fluctuations.
By Pliny Earle Chase, M. A., 8. P. A. S. (From the Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society.) 8 vo., 8 pp.

Barometric Indications of a Resisting Aither. By Pliny Earle Chase. From
the American Journal of Science and Arts, for September, 1864. 8 vo., 8 pp.

Connolly, H.—Observations taken at Fort Nascopic, Esquimaux bay, dis-
trict of Labrador, from November 1, 1863, to June 30, 1864.

Cook, Eugene B.—Report of Eugene B. Cook, meteorologist of the New
York Skating Club, for the season 1863-64. Pamphlet, 30 pp.

Darrell, Judge John Harvey —Extracts from the Meteorological Report of
Observations taken at the Centre Signal Station of Bermuda, in 1860, 1861,
1862, 1863, 1864. Copied from the Royal Gazette.

Extracts from Register kept at the Royal Engineer Meteorological Observa-
tory at St. George’s, Bermuda, in 1860, 1861, 1862.

Extracts from the Register of the quantity of rain fallen at Ireland island,
Bermuda, in 1860, 1861, 1862, 1863.

[The above were furnished to supply deficiencies in the Smithsonian Record.]

Chart of Bermuda, showing the position of the meteorological stations.

Dreutzer, O. E—See State Department. :

Given, William, United States Vice Consul——Summary of barometrical and
theomometrical observations, and amount of rain, at Fort de France, Martinique,
during each month from July, 1863, to June, 1864, inclusive.

Goddard, C. W.—See State Department.

Flerschel, Alexander S.—On the detonating meteor of December 5, 1863.
By Alexander 8. Herschel, esq.; communicated by F. J. Bailey, esq. Read
before the Liverpool Literary and Philosophie Society, Sth February, 1864.
8 vo., 8 pp.

Ejde G. A—Summary of observations for the year 1864, at Cleveland,
Ohio, and a comparison with the preceding eight years.

Ingalsbe, Grenville M.—Observations at South Hartford, Washington county,
New York, for the years 1860, 1861, 1862, with summary of maxima, min-
ima, and means.

Ives, William.—Monthly and annual summary of observations, kept for the
Young Men’s Association at Buffalo, New York, during the year 1864.

Kingston, G. T., M. A——Mean meteorological results at Toronto, Canada,
for the year 1864, compared with the averages of a series of years, by G. T.
Kingston, M. A., director of the Provincial Magnetic Observatory.

Lapham, I. A. LL. D.—A table showing the monthly mean temperature
of the open air in the shade, at Milwaukee, Wisconsin, from 1837 to 1864, as
observed by ©. J. Lynde, esq., E. S. Marsh, M. D., Charles Winkler, M. D.,
and I. A. Lapham, LL. D. Compiled by Dr. Lapham with great care from
manuscripts in his possession

METEOROLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS. 109

Map of Wisconsin, with lines showing the remarkable effect of Lake Michi-
gan, in elevating the mean temperature of January and depressing that of July.
By I. A. Lapham, LL. D., Milwaukee, Wisconsin. °

Lewis, James, M. D.—Wourly record of temperature at Mohawk, New York,
during the year 1864, kept by his metallic self-recording thermometer; also
specimens of a register kept by his self-reeording barometer.

Logan, Thomas M., M. D.—Contributions to the physics, hygiene, and
thermology of the Sacramento river, California. By Thomas M. Logan, M.
D. (From the Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal.) 8vo., 8 pp.

Abstract of observations during the year 1864, at Sacramento, California.

Lynde, C. J—See Lapham.

Marsh, E. S—See Lapham.

Marsh, Roswell—Summary of observations at Steubenville, Ohio, from
1831 to 1863, giving the means for each month in every year, the means for
the seasons of each year, and the annual means for the whole series.

Morris, Prof. Oran W.—Diagram of temperature and barometer for every
day in the year 1863; also, diagram of the monthly quantity of rain in 1860,
1861, 1862, and 1863, at New York.

Murdock, G.—HWints on meteorology, with summaries of observations made
at St. John, New Brunswick, between the years 1850 and 1862, the latter
included. By G. Murdock, superintendent of water works, St. John. 8vo.
34 pp.

Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft “ Isis.’’—Zustamenstellung der Monats-
und Jahresmittel aus den zu Meissen, (Saxony,) 1864, angestellten taglich
dreimaligan meteorologischen beobachtungen.

Newton, H. A——The original accounts of the displays in former times of the
November star-shower; together with a determination of the length of its
cycle, its annual period, and the probable orbit of the group of bodies around
the sun. By H. A. Newton. From the American Journal of Science, May
and July, 1864. S8vo., 24 pp.

Abstract of a memoir on shooting-stars, read before the National Academy
of Sciences, August 6, 1864. From the American Journal of Science for
March, 1865. 8vo., 16 pp.

Paine, H. M., M. D—Summary of observations for the year 1864, at
Clinton, New York.

Phelps, W. E.—See State Department.

Sanger, Henry, (United States consul at Paramaribo.)—Daily means of
meteorological elements, at the Georgetown observatory, British Guiana, South
America, for December, 1863; published in the Royal Gazette.

State Department, Washington —Meteorological observations, at Constanti-
nople, from October, 1862, to September, 1863. By C. W. Goddard, consul
general at Constantinople.

Daily telegraphic reports of the weather in various places in Europe, com-
municated to the Central Physical Observatory, St. Petersburg, Russia, for the
year ending September 30, 1864. Translated and compiled from the daily
issues of the St. Petersburg Vedomost, by William Edwin Phelps, United
States consul, St. Petersburg.

Meteorological review for the year 1864, from observations at the Liprocy
hospital of Lungeguard, at the city of Bergen, Norway, reduced by O. E.
Dreutzer, United States consul, Bergen.

Société Meteorologique de France-—Annuaire de la Société Meteorologique
de France, 1864.

Switzerland, Consul General of, at Washington—Observations at various
points in Switzerland, in December, 1863, and January, February, March, and
April, 1864. Hach month about 50 pages quarto.

110 METEOROLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS.

Trask, Dr. John B.—A register of the earthquakes in California from 1800
to 1863. Pamphlet, 8 vo., 26 pp.

Trembley, J. B., M. D—Synopsis of observations for the year 1864, at
Toledo, Ohio, and a comparison with the preceding four years.

Tyler, A. Wellington—Observations from July 26 to October 13, 1864,
taken on board the schooner Nelly Baker, on a pleasure voyage from Boston
to the coast of Labrador.

Wadsworth, George-—Mean temperature at Hiram, Maine, from 1831 to
1864, inclusive; also, the amount of snow that fell during the same period.
The record kept by General Peleg Wadsworth; reductions made by George
Wadsworth, civil engineer. '

Whitehead, W. A—Summary of observations at Newark, New Jersey, for
the year 1864, and a comparison with the previous twenty years.

Williams, Prof: M. G—Summary of observations at Urbana, Ohio, for the
year 1864, containing the means and extremes of barometer and thermometer,
for each month and for the year, together with the monthly amount of rain
and cloudiness, and force and direction of the wind.

Winnepissiogee Lake Cotton and Woollen Manufacturing Company.—Depth
of rain and melted snow collected in the rain-gauge kept by the company at
the outlet of Lake Winnepissiogee, in the town of Laconia, New Hampshire ;
also, depth of rain and melted snow collected in the gauge at Lake Village,
New Hampshire, about four miles south, on the same stream of water, for the
year 1864.

Zeigler, C—Summary of observations for the year 1864, at Du Quoin, Perry
county, Illinois.

Unknown.—Results from meteorological observations made at the Royal Ob-
servatory, Cape of Good Hope, from January 1, 1842, to January 1, 1863,
and a notice of the observations made by La Caille in 1751-’52. 16 pp. folio.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

The Executive Committee respectfully submit to the Board of Regents the
following report of the receipts and expenditures of the Smithsonian Institution
during the year 1864:

RECEIPTS.

The whole amount of Smithson’s bequest deposited in the treasury
of the United States is $515,169, from which an annual income

RUM DET) COALMETOCTIVEO, OF a. 0 <6 einen nb oe aje.qte - > soe e eeicie $30,910 14
The extra fund of unexpended income is invested as follows, viz :
$75,000 in Indiana 5 per cent. bonds, yielding in 1864........ 3,750 00
$53,500 in Virginia 6 per cent. bonds, yielding in 1864........
$12,000 in Tennessee 6 per cent. bonds, yielding in 1864 -.....
$500 in Georgia 6 per cent. bonds, yielding in 1864 ....--..
$100 in Washington 6 per cent. bonds, yielding in 1864 .... 9 6.00
34,666 14

Balance in hands of treasurer, January, 1864, and interest due
SPB OV CTU ENE <2 eran exe aie a aia eed alia San. ghey Gta Saves =ias 32,353 90

67,020 04

EXPENDITURES.
For building, furniture, and fixtures............. $2, 620 77
Mer eeNCEAL CENENSCH')-/o'4 5.4.0 2 Go ween as sien ais cele WL Oak x0)
For publications, researches, and lectures -....... 11,907 48
For library, museum, and gallery of art.......... 8,936 21

—— 37,535 96

Balance in treasury and due from government January, 1865 $29,484 08

STATEMENT IN DETAIL OF THE EXPENDITURES OF 1864.

BUILDING.
Penne anerdontals, 20 seo cm ace ks cainae «=. se $1,066 32
Furniture and fixtures in general ........-...... 804 45
Furniture and fixtures for museum......--...... 750 00
$2,620 77
GENERAL EXPENSES.

McetiTe OF LHEVEOAEG:.- 42 -'. .)\ cme se clvic = a> wise 131 50

ete ental t AUIE Hern IM 8) cl cin a Bia in = wo aymeiare 1,816 3
ae a Ne iia tala ac Ssh ew eld wine bd «ala oie 408 38
mraneporiation, generar. 225 25.250. 2. ee 868 09

ae Benes rae aa Lik taco lain 3 aha Mein 2,753 76
RL Neils clk 4 Bat ORS SE eat leap eA 502 77

Bremer al OEM de wey: sioicis'a'3%= Jo chi’ s «ai ina « 157 76

112 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

ERBParatHnsi es: OS cries ioe cee eee ee 102 74
PAOOMMLORY) 2 elena a, < acl eee eee eters aE ops a 160 78
incidentals; penetalss 2.5 {oe satee cata a ote 631 36
Bite Cleric -hireey es SES ee ae bee Sel cetclerstcraiees 599 00
SITIO, MIC CEC AN Yn eee ee eee net erent eee 3, 500 00
Salaries, chief clerk, bookkeeper, messenger, and

PAOD ATA eee. 22 eee Or nS ea ee erate orate a 2,439 00

—— 14,071 50
PUEPLICATIONS, ETC.

Smithsonian WaeutrinuUtions.. «oss. 22222 ees Se eee 2,224 57
DUNEAROMM A LCDOIUBL | = =< <')i/c mere te Qa Oaee es 547 00
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections .......... 6,449 06
Ofherspialications + 2'- 25 /-beincntee peas oem 210 00
RIC OROLOD Vial). 2 afa'c\ cw cramerete aan either bie etek 1, 339 15
Re cenenesy. 3 ti 12). 2 Ae OE Gel eee Uw Ne 125 00
BPMs eyes. shoe hace matte Pe ies yA Re 2p SS Hott 1, 012"70

— 11,907 48

Cost of books and binding......--..-.. pas NS 1,953 67
ARMisbanie Ui DT anys aie es avare sete rotten Sere Ae 1, 291 66
raneportation-for- library | -aeec. ates cee ete ae 200 00
Museum, salary of Assistant Secretary ......---.. 2,000 00
Minas Ot I SACKIBLATICG =<! = <== bynts ews = Smid» & Oem oie 1,096 56
Museum, transportation ./<..-'2) 2/0. ys tein 400 00
Niisewm, THCIOONtals ~~ 2:5.) po o<eretcctelwiwia'e'ete el dicre is - 1,080 31
BRT RE PIU MOTI ori. 9 copes leew (os com Matin we} nial sini ml sin = amie 190-76
PP CIPORMARG at 2 casa toe pire nls: cioim pial nie, alelaata) nye < 0:8 > =e 116 25

aaa 8,936 21

Dotalem pend itare 2 oie 0 a eater etapatn biele haere ieee $37,535 96

From the foregoing it will be seen that the whole ineome during the year
1864 was $34,666 14, and that the expenditures during the same period were
$37,535 96, exhibiting for the first time, in the account of the current opera-
tions, an excess of the latter over the former of $2,869 82.

According to the statement of the Secretary, the cause of this excess of the
expenditure was the constant increase in prices of all the articles used in the
operations of the Institution, particularly in printing and paper, and the pur-
chase of gold to defray the expense of the foreign agencies.

To meet contingencies of this kind, however, as well as to carry on all the
operations for cash, there had been accumulated in the hands of the treasurer at
the beginning of the year the sum of $32,353 90. The unexpended balance,
therefore, now in the hands of the treasurer is $29,484 08.

The appropriation by Congress for the preservation of the collections of the
exploring and surveying expeditions of the United States has been expended
as heretofore, under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior, in assisting to
pay the expenses of extra assistants in the museum, and the cost of arranging
and preserving the specimens. The articles intrusted to the care of the Insti-
tution by government are in good condition, and the distribution of the duplicate
specimens belonging to government, as well as those of the Institution, has been
industriously prosecuted during the year.

From the examination made by the committee it appears that the affairs of
the Institution are in a prosperous condition; that all the operations have been

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. M4

continued with unabated energy ; that notwithstanding the depreciation of the
value of the income, the expenditures have but little exceeded the current re-
ceipts, and that provision had been made even for this contingency by the pre-
vious accumulations in the hands of the treasurer.

The Executive Committee are informed by the Secretary that the remainder
of the legacy of Smithson, amounting to about $26,000, has been received in
coin, and deposited with the Treasurer of the United States.

In conclusion, it may be stated that the whole amount of the Smithsonian
fund, including the original legacy and the additions which have since been
made to it, together with the balance in the hands of the treasurer, and the State
stocks estimated at their present market value, amounts to about $690,000.

The committee agree with the Secretary in opinion that, as far as possible, the
active operations of the Institution should be continued, and the curtailments
rendered necessary by the depreciation of the currency be made in expenditures
for those objects which can most readily be postponed. For the year 1865 the
same estimates are submitted as those for 1864, with such diminution as the
Secretary may deem it advisable to make.

The committee have carefully examined the accounts of the Institution and
the books as posted by Mr. Randolph for the past year, and find them to be
correct.

Respectfully submitted.

RICHARD WALLACH, Chairman.

Fepruary, 1865. ’

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS

OF

PER BOAR: Di Oak Ree Nase

WASHINGTON, January 9, 1865.

A special meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day at 7} o’clock
p: m. in the hall of the Institution. Present: Hon. H. Hamlin, Hon. 5S. P.
Chase, Hon. L. Trumbull, Hon. G. Davis, Hon. 8. S. Cox, Hon. J. W. Patter-
son, Professor L. Agassiz, and the Secretary, Professor Henry.

Mr. Hamlin was called to the chair. is

The Secretary stated that this meeting had been called in accordance with
a provision of the law of Congress authorizing a meeting at any time, at the
request of three members of the Board. That the objects of this meeting were—

First. To announee officially the death of Chief Justice Taney and General
Totten, both members of the Board from the beginning of the Institution, and
who had ever evinced a lively interest in its prosperity, and had faithfully dis-
charged their duties as guardians of the trust.

Second. To elect a Chancellor or President of the Board in place of Chief
Justice Taney.

Third. To consider the disposition to be made of the remainder of the legacy
of Smithson, which was now deposited with Messrs. Peabody & Co., of London,
subject to the order of the Institution; and,

Fourth. To consider the report of the committee appointed at the last session
of the Board, relative to the suggestions of Professor Agassiz as to the separate
maintenance of the museum, &c.

On motion of Mr. Cox, it was resolved that the proper expression of sympathy
be tendered to the families of the Regents whose deaths have been announced,
and that provision be made for the preparation of an account of their lives and
labors for the annual report to Congress.

On motion of Mr. Cox, Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase was unanimously
elected Chancellor of the Institution.

On motion of Mr. Chase, the Secretary was instructed to draw the money now
in England, and to deposit it with the Treasurer of the United States.

Professor Agassiz, as chairman of the special committee, appointed at the
meeting held March 15, 1864, to report suggestions for extending the active
operations of the Institution, and for the separate maintenance of the collections,
at the expense of the government, submitted a report.*

* This report was lost in the fire, and the absence of Professor Agassiz from the country
has rendered it impossible to obtain another copy in time for insertion in this journal.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 115

The opinion was expressed by several members of the Board that the views
of Professor Agassiz were highly important, and believed to be such as were
entertained generally by the scientific men of the country, but in consideration
of the financial condition of the government, the present time was not favorable
for action in regard to them.

On motion of Mr. Trumbull, the consideration of the subject was postponed
to the annual session to be held in January, 1866.

The Secretary stated that the question had arisen at a previous meeting ‘of
the Board as to whether the interest on the Smithsonian fund, permanently in
the treasury of the United States, ought not to be paid in coin, in common with
the interest on other trust funds in charge of the government; that he had
addressed a letter to the Secretary of the Treasury on this subject, but on
account of the large demands on the government for the prosecution of the war,
he had not pressed a decision of the question.

On motion of Mr. Chase, it was

Resolved, That the Secretary be instructed to renew the application to the
Treasury Department, in behalf of the Board, for the payment of the interest
in coin.

The meeting then adjourned.

WASHINGTON, January 19, 1865.
In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution, fixing the time of beginning of their annual session on the third
Wednesday of January in each year, a meeting was called for this day.
No quoruni being present, and the Secretary having stated that the book-
keeper had not yet been able to make up the annual accounts, the Board
adjourned, to meet at the call of the Secretary.

WASHINGTON, January 28, 1865.

A meeting of the Board of Regents was held at 3 o’clock p. m. in the east
wing of the Smithsonian building. Present: Hon. S. P. Chase, Hon. H. Ham-
lin, Hon. L. Trumbull, Hon. J. W. Patterson, Hon. R. Wallach, Mr. Seaton,
treasurer, and Professor Henry, Secretary.

The Chancellor, Chief Justice Chase, took the chair.

The Secretary stated that the principal object of this meeting was to officially
inform the Regents that, on the afternoon of Tuesday, January 24, a fire broke
out in the roof of the main building of the Smithsonian Institution, which de-
stroyed the principal part of the contents of the rooms in the upper story of the
building and the adjoining towers. ‘The loss, however, did not include the large
library, the museum, with the government collections and those of the Institu-
tion, the duplicate specimens intended for distribution, and the meteorological
records. The accident would not, therefore, materially affect the essential opera-
tions of the Institution, which would be continued as usual.

116 PRUCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

The Secretary stated that, immediately after the occurrence of the accident,
he had applied to the Secretary of War, Mr. Stanton, for aid in constructing a
temporary roof to protect the building and its contents from the weather. The
Secretary of War expressed his willingness to grant this, provided the Presi-
dent gave his sanction, and the expense should be refunded to the department.
The latter was promised on the part of the Institution by the Secretary, after
consultation with the Chancellor. The President readily gave his consent to
the proposition, and General Rucker, of the Quartermaster’s Department,
furnished the materials, and detailed a large force of carpenters and laborers,
under the direction of Mr. E. Clark, to erect a temporary roof, which would be
sufficient to protect the building from storms, and would not interfere with the
construction of a permanent covering.

4 *
At the suggestion of the Chancellor, it was

Resolved, That the measures which had been taken by the Secretary be

approved.

Mr. Patterson informed the Board that the House of Representatives had
adopted, on the motion of Hon. Mr. Rice, a resolution directing the Committee
ou Publie Buildings and Grounds to inquire into the origin of the fire, the ap-
proximate loss to the government and private persons, the means necessary to
preserve the remaining portions, &c.

‘he Chancellor remarked that it would be proper that a joint committee
should be appointed, to be composed of members of the Senate, of the House of
Representatives, and of this Board, to take the whole subject into consideration.

in anticipation of this, however, it was thought advisable that a special com-
mittee should be appointed to report directly to the Board; and, on motion of
My. Wallach, it was '

Resolved, 'That a committee be appointed to inquire into the origin of the fire,
to ascertain the extent and character of the loss sustained, and to make sugges-

tions as to what.measures should be adopted for the repair and improvement of
the building.

The Chancellor appointed the mover of the resolution Mr. Wallach, and the
Secretary, as the committee. ;

The Board having examined the building, adjourned, to meet on Thursday
evening at 74 o’clock p. m.

WASHINGTON, February 2, 1865.

A meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution was held
at 8 o’clock p. m. at the residence of one of the Regents, Hon. R. Wallach,
Mayor of Washington. Present: Hon. H. Hamlin, Hon. G. Davis, Hon. J.
W. Patterson, Hon. 8. 8. Cox, Hon. R. Wallach, and the Secretary, Professor

Henry, and, by invitation, Hon. J. H. Rice, chairman of the Committee on
Public Buildings of the House of Representatives.

Mr Hamlin was called to the chair.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. LEG

The minutes of the meetings held on the 9th, 19th, and 28th of January
were read and approved.

Mr. Wallach presented the report of the Executive Committee for the year 1864,
which was read and adopted.

The Secretary stated that, in accordance with the instructions of the Board;
he had renewed the inquiry to the Secretary of the Treasury whether the interest
of the Smithsonian fund ought not to be paid in coin or its equivalent, but had
not yet received a reply, it having been referred to the Solicitor of the Treasury
for a legal opinion. ;

On motion of Mr. Davis, it was

Resolved, That if the Secretary of the Institution should ascertain that the
legal opinion of the Solicitor would be adverse to the application, that he should
request the Secretary of the Treasury to submit the question to Congress for
its action. | ,

Professor Henry presented the question as to the disposition of the residuary
legacy of Smithson which had been received from England, and was now ons
deposit with the Treasurer of the United States.

On motion of Mr. Patterson, it was

Resolved, That the Secretary be instructed to invest the money now on de-
posit with the Treasurer of the United States, derived from the residuary legacy
of James Smithson, in United States bonds bearing 7,3; per cent. interest.

Mr. Wallach presented the following report from the special committee ap-
pointed at the last meeting to inquire into the origin of the fire, &c., which was
read and adopted:

REPORT OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION RELATIVE TO THE FIRE.

The special committee appointed by the Board at its meeting on January 28,
1865, to inquire into the origin of the fire at the Smithsonian Institution, to
ascertain the extent and character of the loss sustained, and to make sugges-
tions as to what measures should be adopted for the repair and improvement
of the building, respectfully report that they have performed the duty assigned
them, so far as the time and their means of information would permit.

I.—THE ORIGIN OF THE FIRE.

The testimony has been taken of all persons connected with the establish-
ment that had any knowledge of the occurrence, and a written account of the
whole is herewith submitted ; also a report from Colonel B.S. Alexander, United
States army, who superiutended the fire-prooting of the main building, of his
examination of the flues connected with the accident.

It is evident, from the concurrent testimony thus obtained, that the fire com-
menced in the southwest part of the roof of the main building in the wood-
work immediately under the slate covering, and that it was kindled by the
heated air or sparks from a sfove which had been temporarily placed in the
room immediately below. ‘The pipe of this stove had been inserted, by mistake,
into a brick furring-space resembling a flue, which opened under the rafters in-
stead of into the chimney flue, within a few inches of the latter. By whom
the hole into which the pipe was inserted was originally made is not known,
but it is remembered that a stove-pipe was put into it as far back as 1854, at the
time of the exhibition held by the Mechanics’ Institute in the building. No

118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

fire, however, had been in this room for ten years previous to Monday, 15th
January, when the mechanist and carpenter of the Institution were engaged,
with several other of the employés, in rearranging the pictures of the gallery,
the weather at the time being unusually cold. These persons, for temporary
convenience, set up the stove above mentioned, intending to remove it as soon
as their task was finished. <A coal fire, kindled with wood, had been burning
in this stove for eight days previous to the conflagration, yet it appears from the
testimony that no evidence of combustion was observed by a person who passed
through the loft six hours before the breaking out of the flames. It is probable,
however, that the wood had been undergoing a process of charring for several
days. :

On account of the very expensive style of architecture selected for the build-
ing, and the limited means at the command of the Board, the pfan had been at
first adopted of finishing the interior of the whole edifice with wood and plaster.
A large portion, however, of the interior woodwork of the main building, after
the roof and exterior had been finished, gave way and fell; whereupon the Re-
gents ordered the removal of the woodwork and its place to be supplied with
incombustible materials. ‘Thus the main building was rendered fire-proof, with
the exception of the supports of the roof, which being covered with slate was
assumed to be safe. The only danger of the occurrence of fire was supposed
to exist in the two wings and the towers, and to guard against this contingency
especial precautions were constantly observed, viz: 1. No smoking was_al-
lowed in any part of the building at any time. 2. No lights were allowed to
be carried from one part of the building to another except in lanterns. 3.
Three coils of large hose were depesited, ready for use, one in the upper story
and the other two on the first floor of the building ; and there were water-pipes
in the basement with faucets. 4. Barrels and buckets, kept constantly filled
with water, were placed at different points of the building. 5. The rule was
observed of cleaning the flues every autumn before the commencement of fires.
6. A watchman was employed each night, who made every hour the rounds of
all the rooms in the building, giving special attention to those in which fire had
been kindled during the day, including the apartments occupied by the family
of the Secretary.

These precautions, however, as it has proved, were insufficient—the fire hav-
ing occurred at a point where no danger was apprehended, and to which access
could with difficulty be obtained.

1].—THE CHARACTER AND EXTENT OF THE LOSS SUSTAINED.

The loss to the Institution was as follows:

1. The contents of the Secretary’s office, consisting of the official, scientific, and
miscellaneous correspondence, embracing 35,000 pages of copied letters which
had been sent, at least 30,000 of which were the composition of the Secretary,
and 50,000 pages of letters received by the Institution. Here, moreover, were
lost the receipts for publications and specimens; reports on various subjects
which have been referred to the Institution; the records of experiments
instituted by the Secretary for the government; four manuscripts of original
investigations, which had been adopted by the Institution for publication;
the manuscript material of the report of the Secretary for 1864; a large number
of papers and scientific notes of the Secretary; a series of diaries and memo-
randum books, and a duplicate set of account books, prepared during the last
twelve years, with great labor, by Mr. Rhees, the chief clerk; also, about one
hundred volumes of valuable works kept at hand for constant reference.

2. In the apparatus room, the large collection of scientific instruments, in-
cluding the donation of the late Dr. Hare.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS 119

3. A part of the contents of the Regents’ room, including the personal effects
of Smithson, with the exception of his portrait and library.

4. The contents of the rooms in the towers, including the meteorological
instruments, the workshop, containing a lathe and a large number of valuable
tools, nearly all the stock on hand of the duplicate copies of the annual reports,
and many other public documents and books intended for distribution to libra-
ries, as well as a quantity of stationery, hardware, &c.

5. The wood-cuts of the illustrations contained in the Smithsonian publi-
cations.

The loss to other parties was as follows :

1st. The contents of what was called the Picture Gallery, viz: a. About two
hundred portraits, nearly all of life size, painted and principally owned by Mr.
J. M. Stanley, formerly of this city, and now of Detroit, Michigan, and which
were on deposit in the institution. 6. A number of half-size Indian portraits,
painted by Mr. King for the government. c. A copy, in Carrera marble, of the
antique statue known as the ‘ Dying Gladiator,” by John Gott, and owned by
Mr. J. C. McGuire, of this city.

2. A number of surveying instruments belonging to the government.

3. The clothing, books, and private effects of several of the persons connected
with the Institution, and of those engaged in scientific studies.

4. The library removed from Beaufort, South Carolina, by the army, and
also that of Bishop Johns, from Fairfax Theological Seminary, given in charge
to the Institution by the Secretary of War for safe-keeping, which libraries were
stored in an upper room in the south tower.

Independent of injury to the building, the‘loss to the Institution, as far as it
may be estimated and can be restored by money, may be stated at about $20,000,
and to individuals $26,000, viz: To Mr. J. M. Stanley, $20,000; Mr. J.C.
McGuire, $1,000; Professor Joseph Henry, $1,500; Mr. W. J. Rhees, $1,200;
Mr. W. DeBeust, $1,300; and all others, $1,000.

Although the loss which the Institution and individuals have sustained is
much to be regretted, yet it is a source of consolation that by far the greater ~
part of the valuable contents of the building have escaped without injury. The
valuable library of the Institution, the most extensive, in regard to the transac-
tions of learned societies and scientific books, in this country; the museum, in-
cluding the collection of the exploring expedition and those of the Institution ;
the large stock of many thousand duplicate specimens for. distribution to all
parts of the world; the records of the museum; a large portion of the corre-
spondence relative to natural history; nearly all the records of meteorological
observations which have been accumulated during the last fifteen years; the
sets of Smithsonian publications (except the annual reports) which have been
reserved to supply new institutions, and the stereotype plates of all the works
which have been published during the last four or five years, have been saved.
All the original vouchers of the payments made by the Institution, the ledger
in which they were posted, and the daybook from 1858, were also preserved,
having been deposited in a safe in the Regents’ room. 'The contents of the con-
necting range between the library and the museum are uninjured; this includes
a series of plaster casts and portraits of distinguished men, among the latter a
life-size portrait of Guizot, by Healy; an original full-length figure of Wash-
ington, by the elder Peale; and also a valuable series of rare engravings illus-
trative of the history of the art, purchased from the Hon. George P. Marsh.

All the important acts of the Regents from the beginning, and an account of
the operations of the Institution, having been published from year to year in the |
several reports to Congress, a continued record of the history of the establish-
ment from the beginning is, therefore, still in existence. As these reports have
been widely distributed, they are generally accessible to the public.

The burning of the roof of the building can scarcely in itself be considered

120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

a calamity, since it probably would have occurred at some future time when a
much larger‘accumulation of valuable articles might have been destroyed, and
since the arrangement of the building can now be improved, and the repairs
made with fire-proof materials. ‘The fire-proofing, as far as it was carried, was
well done, and it is to this circumstance that the preservation of the most valu-
able objects of the establishment is due.

IIl.—SUGGESTIONS AS TO WHAT SHOULD BE DONE.
)

There can be no hesitation in adopting the conclusion that steps should be
immediately taken not only to repair the injury, but to improve the condition of
the building.

1. The main edifice should be provided with a metallic roof.

2. For the wooden conical terminations of the towers should be substituted
metallic coverings.

3. All valuable articles belonging to the Institution or deposited in it, including
the library, should be placed in the main building, which should be cut off from
the wings by iron doors. '

4. Provision should be made for a thorough heating of the whole building by

steam or hot water.

5. Suggestions should be requested from competent architects and engineers

as to the work to be done, and those which are adopted should be embodied in
working plans and drawings.

6. A building committee of the Board should be appointed to have charge of
the work.

No very exact estimate can as yet be made as to the cost of the repairs, &c.,
for it has not been possible, without erecting a scaffolding, to determine whether
it will be necessary to take down the high northern tower. Colonel Alexander,
of the engineer corps, however, has informed the committee that he thinks
$100,000 will be required to make the necessary repairs and improvements.

The committee cannot conclude without adding that, in their opinion, the
occurrence of the fire ought not to be allowed to interfere with the active ope-
rations of the Institution, on which essentially depends the reputation it has
established throughout the world, and its efficiency as an instrument for “ the
increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” ‘T’o the support and exten-
sion of these operations, therefore, the annual interest from the original fund
should, as far as possible, continue as heretofore to be conscientiously applied.

Respectfully submitted :
RICHARD WALLACH,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Special Committee.
WASHINGTON, February, 1865.

The question was then discussed as to the measures to be taken for procuring
the means for the repair and improvement of the building; and the Regents
present connected with Congress, as well as Hon. Mr. Rice, expressed the
opinion that it was probable an appropriation would be made by Congress for
the purpose, without opposition.

On motion of Mr. Cox, it was

Resolved, That the Secretary prepare a statement of the amount necessary to
reconstruct the building; the legislation necessary to place the residuary legacy
of Smithson, with the original amount, permanently in the treasury of the
United States; and the action requisite to secure the payment ef the interest on
the fund in coin, to be furnished to the joint committee of Congress which has
been appointed with reference to the Smithsonian Institution.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 121

On motion of Mr. Wallach, the following resolutions were adopted:

Resolved, That the thanks of the Board of Regents are hereby tendered to
all who assisted in any way in endeavoring to save the property of the Smith-
sonian Institution, or to extinguish the fire which lately destroyed a part of its
building.

Resolved, That the thanks of the Board of Regents are hereby tendered to
Hon. E. M. Stanton,sSecretary of War, General W. S. Hancock, General C. C.
Augur, General A. B. Dyer, General Rucker, Colonel B. 5. Alexander, Colonel
Giles, and others connected with the military department of government, for
services rendered in saving the property, or in facilities granted for its protection.

Resolved, That the thanks of the Board are hereby tendered to the military
and civil fire departments, and to Mr. E. S. Smith, superintendent of Harnden
Express Company, A. C. Richards, Chief of Police, Messrs. J. R. Elvans, J.
Farrel, M. ‘Tiffany, G. Gibbs, and many others who rendered valuable services
at the time of the fire.

The Board then adjourned, to meet at the call of the Secretary.

—_—_—_—-

WEDNESDAY, March 1, 1865.

A meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution was held
this day in the room of the Senate Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds,
at the United States Capitol, at 10 o’clock a,m. Present: Hon. L. Trumbull,
Hon. G. Davis, Hon. 8. S. Cox, Hon. J. W. Patterson, Hon. R. Wallach, and
the Secretary, Professor Henry.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

In the absence of the Chancellor, Mr. Trumbull was called to the chair.

The Secretary announced the election of General Richard Delafield, United
States army, by joint resolution of the United States Senate and House of
Representatives, as a Regent for the term of six years, to fill the vacancy ocea-
sioned by the death of General Totten.

The Secretary stated that intelligence had recently been received of the sud-
den death of the Hon. Witutam L, Dayton, one of the Regents, while repre-
senting our government in France; that, although Mr. Dayton had not been
able to be present at the meetings of the Board, he had rendered good services
to the Institution by attention to its interests abroad.

On motion of Mr. Cox, it was

Resolved, That the Hon. J. W. Patterson be requested to prepare a eulogy
on Mr. Dayton; that Hon. Henry Winter Davis be requested to prepare a
eulogy on Chief Justice Taney; and Professor Henry one on General Totten,
to be presented at the next meeting of the Board.

The Secretary mentioned the death of Mr. John Varden, for many years the
curator of the government museum while it was in the Patent Office, and who,
since its removal to the Institution, had assisted in the care of the specimens.
He was a very worthy citizen, and faithfully discharged his duties in connexion
with this establishment.

The Secretary also stated that one of the employés, John Connor, who had
been connected with the Institution for upwards of fifteen years, died suddenly

122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS

last summer, leaving a family of daughters in a destitute condition; that he had
given the widow permission to sell articles of refreshment, exclusive of intox-
icating liquors, to the visitors of the museum, and that he thought, in considera-
tion of the long and faithful service of the deceased, the expenses of his funeral
should be paid from the Smithsonian fund.

On motion of Mr. Wallach, it was

Resolved, That the Secretary be authorized to pay the funeral expenses of
John Connor.

On motion of Mr. Patterson, the vacancy in the Executive Committee was
filled by the election of General Delafield.

On motion of Mr. Trumbull, it was

Resolved, That the annual salary of the Secretary of the Institution be in-
creased one thousand dollars, that of the Assistant Secretary five hundred dol-

lars, and of the Chief Clerk three hundred and fifty dollars, and that the said
increase take effect from the Ist of January, 1865. F
The Secretary stated what measures had been taken in regard to the preser-
vation of the Smithsonian building, and that Mr. A. Cluss, architect, had been
employed to prepare plans and estimates.
On motion of Mr. Cox, it was

Resolved, That the whole subject of the repairs and reconstruction of the
building, and the disposal of the stocks held by the Institution, be intrusted to
the Chancellor, Secretary, and the Executive Committee.

The Board then adjourned sine die.

ee eee

— a” a —

GENERAL APPENDIX

TO THE

REPORT FOR 1864.

The object of this appendix is to illustrate the operations of the Institution
by reports of lectures and extracts from correspondence, as well as to furnish
information of a character suited especially to the meteorological observers and

other persons interested in the promotion of knowledge.

MEMOIR OF DELAMBRE.,

BY JOSEPH FOURIER, PERPETUAL SECRETARY OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES:

’
TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY C. A. ALEXANDER,

To have acquired, from his early youth, a familiar knowledge of the great
works of antiquity, and of the languages and literature of modern times; to
have dedicated himself to the study of the heavens, and identified his name
with an enterprise of wide renown and eminent utility; to have written with
ability the history of ancient science, as well as of the most recent discoveries ;
and with these proofs of mental superiority to have united the noblest qualities
of the heart—in these sentences may be summed up the entire life of the dis-
tinguished man whose character and labors I propose to retrace. Few will fail,
in the traits thus given, to recognize Delambre, or to feel in the review a re-
newal of the regrets occasioned by his recent loss.

Delambre was born at Amiens, the 19th of September, 1749. The abbé
Delille, a distinguished professor of letters in the college of that city, soon re-
cognized in his youthful pupil a union of the gentlest manners with surprising
powers of memory and an early familiarity with the ancient languages. In
developing these first germs of talent and taste, the abbé succeeded in inspiring
a passion for continued and unremitting application, the indispensable prerequi-
site of all permanent success. A friendship was thus cemented between these
two celebrated individuals which continued to the end, with equal disinterested-
ness and constancy on the part of both.

To continue in the capital a course of study thus auspiciously commenced
was beyond the means of Delambre’s family, already burdened with a ‘numerous
charge. Fortunately, however, a gratuitous scholarship had been founded at
some former period by one of the members of that family, in the University of
Paris, and being at the disposal of the city of Amiens, was now conferred on
the young Delambre. The benefaction thus reverted towards its source, nor
could a destination more just or worthy have been given it. The recipient,
already digtinguished in every path of literary study, was destined one day to
reflect on his country the lustre of imperishable labors. While completing the
course of studies which bears the name of philosophy, he still recurred, with
unwearied assiduity, to that ancient literature which had shaped the culture of
his earlier years, and which the pupil of the abbé Delille could scarcely fail
to prosecute with brilliant success.

The time allotted to the appointment he held had passed away, and his
family, seemingly persuaded that talent ought to suffice for everything, left him
to provide for his own establishment. More than a year thus elapsed in vague
expectation, during which time the most extraordinary privations were endured,
not merely with constancy, but indifference. It would be difficult to believe,
had we not Delambre’s own word for it, to what an extent this restriction of
his expenses was carried. Absorbed in literary and historical studies, he
scarcely regarded as desirable what others would have considered indispensable.
Silently laying the foundation of his future labors, he engaged at this time in
extensive translations from the Latin, Greek, Italian, and English, and com-
menced also the study of mathematics ; the whole not with any view to profit,

126 MEMOIR OF DELAMBRE.

though he might easily have obtained it, but with the sole purpose of prefect-
ing his own knowledge. a

Living thus apart and unnoticed, yet free and happy, he knew or indulged
no passion but that for study. His time, the only property he could call his
own, was secured to him; no importunate visitor appropriated his leisure; his
talents gathered strength and expansion daily for the future service of astronomy
and letters. Solitude may thus become an inspiration for genius; it exalts
the thoughts, dissipates the desire for sudden and vulgar notoriety, and prepares
the way for works worthy to be the admiration of after ages. ;

The extraordinary merit of Delambre, the habitual mildness of his character,
the determination with which he applied himself to a revisal of his whole pre-
vious course of study, at length attracted attention. As he had beea advised
to give some years to teaching, he repaired with this purpose to Compicegne, but
remained there only a short time. ‘The resources of the capital had become
indispensab e to his plan of study, and returning to Paris, he entered on the
same course of life as before; this time, indeed, with some additional advantages
which he could no longer decline with prudence, and which soon secured him a
settled and independent position. It was now that Delambre first felt himself
irresistibly impelled to a scientific career. Without neglecting literature and
history, he explored the theories of mathematics, and applied himself assiduously
to the study of astronomy and physics. A fidelity to his purpose formed at all
times a distinctive characteristic of his genius. No one ever threw into his
pursuits more of the spirit of sequence, or traversed with more constancy the
vast field of human attainments.

When he presented himself at the college of France to hear the lessons of
Lalande, he had already studied the works of that astronomer, and had even
written commentaries upon them. Here he first attracted notice by reciting, on
an occasion which casually offered itself, an entire passage from the Greek poet
Aratus, which he illustrated by the criticisms of various annotators. Lalande
naturally felt curious to know in what manner his own treatise of astronomy
had been annotated by so accomplished a student, nor could he long remain
in doubt as to the value of this new acquisition to the interests of science. From

that time he regarded Delambre as a fellow-laborer; dissuaded him from a use- »

less attendance on the public lessons, and associating him with his own private
labors, confided to him the most difficult astronomical calculations. He induced
Mon. Dassy, whose son had previously received lessons from Delambre, to
establish a private observatory at his hotel. Here, being provided with the
necessary instruments, Delambre entered on a course of the most extensive
observation and research ; digested a plan for reforming all the astronomical
tables, and may be said to have conseerated his life to the study and description
of the heavens. ‘This destination had presented itself to his mind at Compiégne,
and was originally suggested by a physician of that place—a man of learning,
who was the confidant of Delambre’s studies, and had remarked his extraordi-
nary turn for earnest and continuous occupation. Lalande, who knew no dis-
tinction between his own interests and those of the science he cultivated, sought
the acquaintance of the individual who had given this judicious advice, and
thanked him in terms to which no personal obligation could have imparted
greater warmth.*

It remains now to indicate the important researches to which Delambre ap-
plied himself, and which constituted his title to a placein the Academy of Sciences.
Herschel, about this time, had observed on the extreme confines of the planetary
world an orb till then unknown—a brilliant discovery, which afforded a new
proof of the truth of the modern theories of physics. ‘This planet was found to

* Lalande, in allusion to his own part in directing the studies of Delambre, was accus-
tomed boasting!y to style the latter his best work. —TRANSLATOR.

7

— Le

MEMOIR OF DELAMBRE. 127

be subjected to the mathematical laws of gravitation ; its course and the places
which it had occupied in the heavens were susceptible of demonstration. It
was thus ascertained that it had been before observed by different astronomers,
who had not, however, distinguished it from the fixed stars. Delambre under-
took the preparation of tables respecting its movements, and published them
without delay, presenting with great exactness all the observations which had
been made up to that time. The Academy of Sciences had proposed this sub-
ject for one of its annual prizes, and bestowed its suffrage on the work of De-
lambre. <A striking attestation was herein afforded to the precision of the new
astronomical methods; for though Herschel’s planet had described but a tenth
part of its course since its discovery, its movements were determined with as
much exactness as those of other planets, our knowledge of which ascends to
periods of remote antiquity.

To Delambre we owe also those tables of the sun which were published at
the same time ; as likewise those of Jupiter and Saturn. He undertook further
to construct ecliptic tables of the satellites of Jupiter, and completed this arduous
and immense labor in a few years.

The object of astronomical tables is to represent the actual state of the heavens
at a given moment. They proceed upon the general principle of the stability
of natural laws, and from the past enable us to attain a knowledge of the future.
These researches are guided by geometry, which was said by Plato to have its
abode in the heavens. They are controlled also by other mathematical theories
which the moderns have invented, and which have served to detect the causes
and the laws of celestial movements.

The most general phenomena, it was first perceived, were necessary conse-
quences of the mathematical laws of gravitation ; still later, more precise observa-
tions indicated irregularities in the course of certain heavenly bodies, which did
not appear to result from the general laws. It was asked if the resistance of
an etherial medium might not affect the planetary movements; if gravitation
was as simple in its action as had been supposed ; if the transmission of its force
was instantaneous or progressive, like that of light. These doubts no longer
exist, and it was in the bosom of this Academy that they were resolved. The
inequalities which seemed inexplicable are necessary results of a mutual action
between the celestial bodies ; they are no exceptions to the mathematical laws
of gravity, which, on the contrary, they serve to confirm. The planctary world
ozcillates between limits which it cannot transcend; it contains within itself
principles of stability and duration which suftice to govern and preserve it. It
was the imperfection of knowledge alone which led astronomers to have recourse
to occasional compensatory causes. ‘The more the universe has been studied,
the more admirable have appeared the unity and simplicity of its laws. Never
have the sciences attained perfection without evincing the immutable order which
an infinite wisdom has impressed on all its works.

All these momentuous questicns respecting the system of the world were under
discussion when Delambre gave himself with characteristic ardor to the study
of astronomy. He assisted at the sitting of the Academy when Laplace com-
municated his important discoveries on the respective inequalities of Jupiter and
Saturn, and at once conceived the design of applying the results of that profound
analysis to perfect the tables of those two planets.

To collect and discuss all the observations which have been taken, so as to
render them comparable with one another and with the results of scientific
theory; to distinguish, by this means, the elements proper to be employed, and
to assign to those elements the value due to them in reconciling the theorems of
analysis with the observed facts; such is, in general, the succession of steps to
be followed in the construction of astronomical tables.

Delambre applied himself especially to those of the sateilites of Jupiter—an
undertaking so arduous, and of such vast extent, that nothing i-ss than the two

128 MEMOIR OF DELAMBRE.

powerful motives of public utility and the grandeur of the subject could have
sustained him in its prosecution. The satellites which accompany Jupiter, and
which disappear when they enter into his shadow, were the first celestial bodies
revealed to us by the telescope. ‘Their eclipses, so entirely analogous to those
of the moon, recur much more frequently than the latter; for a single one of
these bodies is obscured four times in the space of seven days. Galileo, who
first contemplated these singular phenomena, quickly inferred that observations
of this kind might be rendered eminently subservient to the promotion of geo-
graphical science. In fact, it required but a knowledge of the courses of these
satellites, and their reduction into tables of sufficient exactness, to rectify a
multitude of enormous errors in the determination of longitude, especially in
regard to the eastern portions of the Old Continent. It is true, indeed, that
many causes concur to limit the use and precision of this method, but it cannot
the less be looked upon as an invaluable source of discovery, and in its conse-
quences as one of the most fortunate of modern inventions; for even at this day
the navigator derives the easiest means of ascertaining the proximity of Jand
and the relative position of the places he is approaching from a group of celes-
tial objects, whose minute size seemed to withdraw them forever from human
observation. Nor is this the only consideration by which this world of Jupiter
is recommended to our admiration, and invested with an interest not inferior to
that of any other portion of the heavens. To an attentive observation of the
eclipses of his satellites we owe our knowledge of the fact that the action of light
is not instantaneous; and from the same source has been derived the precise
measure of the time which is required for its propagation from the sun to our
globe—a capital discovery, made by Reaumer at the observatory of Paris, and
which a subsequent theory has fully confirmed.

» The system composed of Jupiter and his four satellites is a world apart, whose
rapid revolutions mirror to us those which are taking place in the general system
of the sun aud planets. Hence, the study of the inequalities of those satellites
may be said to economize astronomic time, as they present to our view a class
of phenomena which will require an immense series of ages for their development
in the planetary system.

The three first satellites of Jupiter are subjected, by their mutual action and
that of the planet, to two very remarkable laws, not less simple or constant than
those of Kepler. There is a reciprocal dependence between their movements
and their positions, so that the place of two of them being known, that of the
third is thereby determined; and as one consequence of this state of things, they
can never be all three eclipsed at the same time. Laplace had discovered these
laws, and had demonstrated that they are necessary results from the mutual
action of the satellites, and that the same cause tends to perpetuate their opera-
tion. All observation affording subsistent proof of the truth of these laws,
Delambre made those admirable theorems of Laplace the basis of his researches.
He had occupied several years in the composition of ecliptic tables founded upon
them, when the Academy of Sciences proposed the same inquiries as the subject
of a prize. This was awarded to Delambre. As he had before obtained this
distinction on account of the planet Herschel, he now a second time earned it
on account of those of Galileo. A short time before this he had been elected a
member of the Academy.

About this time the execution of a grand and difficult project was set on foot
in France—a project whose importance had attracted the interest of all en-
lightened nations, its object being to establish a uniform system of measures
founded on some natural and invariable base. As the chief element of the
French metrical system, a determinate portion of the terrestrial meridian was
fixed upon, and a fortunate opportunity was thus offered of renewing those im-
portant geodesic operations which have carried to probably the highest attain-
able degree of precision our knowledge of the figure and dimensions of the

a

ee ee

MEMOIR OF DELAMBRE. 129

globe. To Delambre and Mechain was confided the task of measuring an are
of the meridian from Dunkirk as far as Barcelona—a vast undertaking, whose
character, progress, and difficulties it is impossible here to detail. Suffice it to
say, that its success was principally due to Delambre; he has written its his-
tory, and it is to his works we must resort if we would acquire a just and
accurate knowledge of the care which it exacted and the results which it
produced.

To trace this meridional line of more than two hundred leagues in length,
and actually to measure it in its whole extent, is what could never have been
proposed : it is the office of geometry to supply the place of immediate measure-
ment. But what a multitude of obstacles does the execution present! The
temperature of the air and of solid bodies is continually changing; the atmos-
phere, whose state is so variable, deflects light from a direct course ; the unequal
height of the points to be observed, the difficulty of selecting, placing, and
maintaining signals, all conspire against the exactness of results, which may
be varied also by the attraction of mountains and influenced by inequalities in
the figure or mass of the globe. Physics, astronomy, and mathematical analysis
must combine their lights to dissipate these causes of uncertainty and error,
and to enable the operator to distinguish among the various species of proof
that which is applicable to his immediate object.

We must restrict ourselves here to citing one remarkable instance of verifi-
cation which occurred in comparing the two bases of Perpignan and Melun,
each in extent about three leagues. Delambre had taken the length of both by
actual measurement. Now, one only of these measurements was necessary, for
the two bases being comprised in a common chain of consecutive triangles, the
one could be deduced from the other by calculation. Having submitted the
operations to this singular proof, the more decisive from the fact that the twe
bases are about two hundred and ‘twenty leagues distant from one another, it
was found that there was not the difference of the third of a metre between the
result of the calculation and that of the measurement. Thus was determined,
by a trigonometrical operation, a line of about three leagues in length from a
distance of more than two hundred leagues, and the error was less than a foot,
that is to say, the thirty-sixth thousandth part of the line calculated. I will
not say that Delambre was surprised at this coincidence; but he was at least
highly gratified, for it was the result alike of his own assiduity and of the
astonishing accuracy of the instruments. Those used for the measurement of
angles, as well as for taking astronomical observations, were the repeating circles
of Borda, whose advantage especially consists in the distribution of any one
error over a multitude of observations. ‘The process adopted for measuring the
bases, which is likewise due to the same great physicist, consists in the right
application of a measure formed of platina, which serves at the same time as a
measure and a thermometer.

Thus far we have spoken only of difficulties incident to geodesic operations
in general, but‘the conductors of the grand work we are considering were often
impeded by obstacles of a different nature. Their progress was beset not only
with keen anxieties, but injurious suspicions and personal annoyance. Mechain,
who has left us a great number of highly valuable observations, was subjected
to quite a long imprisonment, and suffered much from the effects of unremitting
fatigue. ‘The principal operation, however, was finished, and, as he had always
designed, Mechain wished to carry the measurement as far as the Balearic
islands, but died in a foreign land before the results of his painful labors were
laid before the public. Delambre, to whose share shad fallen a much more ex-
tensive portion of the work, collected all the elements of it, and published them
in a leading work which must be regarded as one of the noblest monuments
of science. He had quitted Paris in the last days of the month of June,
1792. It is easy to judge how little favorable the political condition of France

98

130 | MEMOIR OF DELAMBRE.

at the time, and the violent passions which inflamed all the parties of the realm,
must have been to a scientific enterprise whose advantages could only be appre-
ciated by enlightened minds.

Suspicions accordingly were soon excited by the arrangements which it was
necessary to make, especially during the night, and by the employment of in-
comprehensible signals and instruments. The villagers flocked together; they
questioned the astronomers, and demanded the instructions under which they
acted, and which seemed to those ignorant minds the cover to some guilty mys-
tery. Delambre, who always believed that good faith, patience, and the desire
of being useful, would triumph over all obstacles, showed the instruments, ex-
plained their use, and, to employ his own expressions, undertook to give lessons
in geodesic astronomy on the public squares of Lagny, Epinay, and St. Denis.
By this means he succeeded in convincing some of his auditors. But the re-
newal of these annoying and perilous interruptions made a suspension of the
work unavoidable. And although this first obstruction was not of any long
duration, and Delambre was allowed after a while to prosecute his original
operations, yet he was called shortly after to endure a persecution still more
odious and protracted. Under the most frivolous pretexts he was excluded
from the commission for determining the new system of measures. ‘The record
of this decision may still be consulted, and we there see that it was the modera-
tion of his opinions, which was imputed to him as a crime, and which led to his
being forbidden even to take part in the measurement of the meridian, The
same order excludes Borda, Delambre, Coulomb, Laplace, and Lavoisier; it
bears the signatures of Robespierre, Billaud-Varenne, Couthon, and Collot-d’-
Herbois. How significant this apposition of names, the most illustrious and
the most odious. But I shall not detain your attention on those unhappy
times which are already far removed from us; the history of science delights
only in the recollections of a state of public harmony and concord.

Delambre might well entertain disquieting apprehensions, and he accordingly
did all in his power to cause himself to be forgotten. Restored to his seden-
tary occupations, he divided his time between science and letters. The Muses
a second time embellished his retreat; they had animated his youth ; they con-
soled his manhood. The Muses are beneficent and hospitable; they offer an
asylum to every misfortune; they welcome outraged merit and lift it above the
injustice of cotemporaries ; they smile upon those who have no patrimony but’
their time and fill their solitude with charms; to all conditions of life they
whisper consoling hopes and inspire noble sentiments.

After an interruption of two years, Delambre, who had carefully preserved
all the results of his labors, found it practicable to renew his exclusive attention
to them. He resumed them at first under a different title, but after no long
time arrangements for continuing the measurement of the meridian were fully
restored. With his usual constancy, Delambre prosecuted all the details of the
vast undertaking, which was completed before the last year of the century.
The results obtained were calculated according to different methods, several of
which were proposed by Delambre. A remarkable theorem of Legendre’s was
also employed in these calculations and evinced its peculiar adaptation to the
uses of geodesic mensuration,

When the importance of the subject is considered, the questions of astronomy,
geometry, and physics, which it was necessary to resolve, the celebrated names
of French or foreign savants, who lent their co-operation to the inquiry, and
the weighty and durable consequences of its result, it is not too much to say
that no other application of science is to be compared with this as regards its
character of exactness, utility and magnitude. Such was the judgment passed
upon it by all the academies of Europe, and the opinion of the ‘Institute of
France was formally expressed when called upon to designate the most import-
ant application of mathematical or physical science which had occurred within

MEMOIR OF DELAMBRE. 131

ten years. With entire unanimity of suffrages the prize was assigned to the
author of the base of the metrical system.

The length of a determinate part of the meridian was at last known with ex-
traordinary precision, and upon this result, together with that of the memorable
experiments of Lefevre-Gineau, has been founded the established system of
French measures.

‘This great work comprehends all the experiments which have been made in
different places on the length of the pendulum. conformably to the processes
invented by Borda; as well as all the observations made with the design of
prolonging the are of the meridian to Fromentera, and also towards the north,
where it unites the geodesic labors of France with those of Great Britain.

One of the most remarkable results of modern science is that which relates
to the elliptical form of the terrestrial globe. The flattening of the regions
around the poles, as determined by the revolution of the globe upon its axis, is
demonstrated by all our geodesic measurements, as it is also by a comparison
of the lengths of the pendulum; and, what must be regarded as one of the most
astonishing attestations to the perfection of our astronomic theories, the measure
of this ellipticity is deducible with great exactness from an attentive observa-
tion of the movements of the moon. In the course of that planet, irregularities.
have been discovered which are owing to the action of the earth, and which
could not exist if the earth were an exact sphere. Even the amount of the
flattening has been deduced from these irregularities with more precision than:
was attainable by immediate measurements carried on successively in different.
regions of the globe,

In this we see a striking proof of the progress of science, for not a century
has elapsed since the elliptical figure of the earth was still a problem. Not
only was the depression of the polar region disputed within the walls of acade-
mies, but a theory directly the contrary of this had been proposed and obsti-
nately maintained. In our day all doubts are resoived. Geodesic operations
in France, England, Equatorial America, and the British possessions in India;
a comparison of the length of the seconds pendulum as observed in different
climates; and, as already remarked, the theory of the lunar inequalities—all
concur in giving the same value as the measure of terrestrial ellipticity. But
this question of the figure of the earth, so prolific of important results, can never
be discussed without reference to that great system of operations for which we
are mainly indebted to Delambre. Already an associate of most foreign acade-
mies, and member of the bureau of longitudes in France, he was elected by the
Institute perpetual secretary for the class of mathematical sciences.

We must now advert to the happy union which he contracted with a party
every way worthy of him, the mother of a youth named De Pommard, who had:
accompanied him in all his geodesic expeditions. Under the tuition of this
mother, the young man had acquired, in addition to correct principles of literary
taste, a familiar acquaintance with the finest productions of foreign literature..
Delambre attached himself more and more to this companion of his labors,.
developed his talents, and enlightened him by his counsels and example. The
mother appreciated justly the value of such a friendship, and it is not difficult
to imagine how much her heart was touched by the advantages which resulted
from it. Having become a widow, Madame de Pommard espoused the friend.
and protector of her son—the man whose talents and character were honored
by the whole of scientifie Europe. She honored them herself, for no one could.
better appreciate high endowments of the heart and intellect. The motives
which brought about this union rendered it fortunate ; but the family thus ten-
derly united was not destined to a durable happiness. It was smitten by the
unexpected and deplorable loss of the son, who had been the object of so many
vows, anxieties, and hopes. His mother found at least as much consolation as:
the calamity admitted of in the tender affection of Delambre. Thus eighteen

132 MEMOIR OF DELAMBRE.

\
years passed away in the bosom of friendship, confidence, and peace; in con
genial occupations, and the exercise of mutual kindness. In the mean time
Delambre had succeeded Lalande in the chair of astronomy at the College of
France, and was appointed one of the principal te¢ularies of the ‘university.
For twenty years that he exercised in one of the classes of the Institute and
in the Royal Academy of Sciences the function bestowed on him by the suf-
frages of his colleagues, he cannot be said to have ever once swerved from the
line of strict impartiality and equity ; and though fidelity to such duties be but
the acquittal of an obligation, and no proper subject for formal eulogy, yet it
can never be useless to cite as an example that earnestness of purpose which
always animated him, or that considerate indulgence which was so much a part
of his nature that no personal motive or even injustice could affect it. In his
annual reports, in the historic eulogies which he gave to the public, and in his
delineations of the progress of science, we everywhere trace the consummate
erudition which distinguished him, and recognize a talent for writing formed
upon the noblest models. Above all, we would signalize that peculiar tempera-
ment which made it for him an agreeable and easy ofiice to exhibit the preduc-
tions of others in the most favorable light, while at the same time he did not
permit himself the slightest deviation from the truth of history.

His literary and scientific labors were 80 numerous and extensive that we can
scarcely be expected to recount them, or even distinctly to explain their objects.
Sufiice it to say that, besides all the works or memoirs which he published separ-
ately, or inserted in the academic collections of Paris, Berlin, and ‘Turin, and in
that known as “La Connaissance des Temps,” [we have from his hand a com-
plete historical series, comprising “ The History of Ancient Astronomy,” in 2
vols. 4to., 1817; “The History of the Astronomy of the Middle Ages,” 1 vol.
4to., 1819; “The History of Modern Astronomy,” 2 vols. 4to., 1821; ‘ The
History of Astronomy in the Eighteenth Century,” and “ The History of the
Measurement of the Earth,” the two latter having been published since his death;
of which works it has been justly said “that no other country has produced
anything of the same kind of equal extent and value.”] The enumeration of
such labors would constitute the most unequivocal title to literary merit, as being
calculated to display it in all its brilliancy without effort or exaggeration. If
this test were applied to the works of Delambre we could not be deceived as to
the rank they must occupy in the history of the sciences. Before him astro-
nomical calculations were founded on numerical processes, which were at once
indirect and irregular. These he has changed throughout, or ingeniously re-
modelled. Most of those which astronomers use at the present time belong to
him, having been deduced from analytic formulas, which, in their application,
have been found alike sure, uniform, and manageable. The new tables which
he has given us of the sun, of Jupiter, of Saturn, of Uranus, and of the satellites
of Jupiter, at least some of them, may have been considerably improved by re-
cent labors founded on a greater number of exact observations ; yet, in the pre-
sent state of astronomy, and up to this day, the tables of Delambre just mentioned
are those employed in the calculations made for the “‘Connaissance des Temps”
and for the nautical and astronomical ephemerides of most nations. In addition,
the geodetic operation, for which we are chiefly indebted to him, and of which
he bore the greatest share, is the most perfect and extensive which has been
executed in any country. It has served as the model of all enterprises of the
kind which have been since projected.

That the labors of Delambre should have had this influence on the method
of astronomy is the more remarkable, considering the somewhat advanced age
at which he came to the cultivation of the science. He was more than thirty-
five when he began to practice observations. The history of the sciences, how-
ever, is not without such examples. Newton, it is true, was in possession of all
his great mathematical discoveries at an age which Leibnitz had not yet attained

MEMOIR OF DELAMBRE. 135

when he first devoted himself to such studies, yet Leibnitz, but a few years
later, was one of the inventors of the infinitesimal analysis. But it is to be re-
membered that both Leibnitz and Delambre had been diligent students from
their earliest youth ; they had acquired, so to say, the literary habit ; their minds
had been disciplined to long research. In the works of Delambre we possess
an almost complete astronomical library; in his ‘Treatise on Astronomy every
known method is reviewed and compared; while his histories of the science
furnish a complete deduction of its progress through every stage, from the most
remote epochs to the year 1822. The latter portions of this work, unpublished
during his life, have received the superintending care of M. Mathieu, an asso-
ciate of the institute and a former pupil and friend of the deceased.

We will not here recall the questions which have been raised respecting the
origin of astronomical knowledge among the ancients. Such a discussion would
involve an attentive study of all extant monuments, and the solution of many
difficult questions in spherical geometry ; it implies, also, a critical examination
of the most ancient sources of historical information. ‘Those sources are all in-
dicated in Delambre’s work, and his learned analysis can never be dispensed
with, whatever be the opinion we may form on the general subject. What, more
than all, distinguishes his history of ancient astronomy from the works which
preceded it having the same object, is the care which the author has taken to
give a clear explanation of the methods pursued by each successive astronomer.
These he has rendered by means of the signs employed in modern analysis; and
it is remarkable that in rendering he has in almost every instance suggested
some improvement in the method.

The long and persevering labors which engrossed him to the last, and from
which nothing could divert him—which knew, indeed, no interruption but the
few hours of sleep he allowed himself, began to tell more and more upon his
health during the last years of his life. The malady through which his services
were at last lost to science declared itself in July, 1822; and from the first a
fatal issue was foreshadowed by long and frequent faintings and a total loss of
strength. He seemed, himself, to foresee the event, preserving to the last in-
stant his unalterable evenness of temper and serenity of mind; so that when the
scene finally closed on the 19th of August, 1822, it might be truly said that,
though he had suffered much, he had given utterance to no complaint.

Were this the place to recall those scenes of regret and sorrow which followed,
what could be added to the noble and touching words pronounced at his obse-
quies? What tribute of honor to his memory could hope to vie with that in
which his illustrious colleague, the witness of his labors and his virtues, embod-
ied the regrets and valedictigns of this Academy ?*

A sketch has been thus given of the most remarkable incidents in the life of
Delambre. If happiness consist in ennobling occupations for the mind; in the
exercise of benevolent affections, and the mastery and possession of one’s self,
what destiny could be happier than his? He enjoyed no exemption from the
passing annoyances of lite, but its most lasting and desirable blessings were
secured to him as the result of assiduous study, disinterested friendship, and
inflexible integrity. The consistency of his character was maintained in every
situation, as well by the moderation of his desires when deprived of the advan-
tages of fortune, as by the use which he made of those advantages when he
possessed them. From earliest youth he had imbibed at its very source a fa-
miliarity with all that antiquity has left us of the true and the sublime; and his
maturer life was passed in a contemplation of the phenomena of the universe,
and in an intimate association with the most celebrated of his cotemporaries.
No feelings of hate, no bitter regrets, no ambitious desires troubled his spirit ;

* The funeral discourse at the grave of Delambre was pronounced by Cuvier.

134 MEMOIR OF DELAMBRE.

offence he offered to none, and envy itself respected his repose. How few are
the distinguished men to whom such a lot was granted; and how easily could
this reflection be made more striking by a recital of some of the exalted names
which preceded him. How melancholy the contrast which is presented in the
exile of Tycho, the indigence of Kepler, the illustrious misfortunes of Galileo.
Delambre has left works whose extent and nature place him in the first rank of
the promoters of science. Both poetry and friendship have been exerted in his
praise; and if anything is wanting to his memory, it is a successor who might
more worthily have executed the present attempt to do justice to his character
and genius. But history, with its eloquent and faithful voice, will redress even
this disadvantage in perpetuating to after ages the recollection of so many useful

and noble labors.

ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT.

BY M. DELAUNAY, OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE.

TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY ALFRED M. MAYER, PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS, PENN-
SYLVANIA COLLEGE, GETTYSBURG.

Tue precise determination of the velocity with which light traverses space,
first accomplished by the aid of astronomical observations, and then reduced
to the proportions of a simple experiment of physics, made in a laboratory of
small dimensions, constitutes certainly one of the wonders of modern science.
We propose to exhibit in this essay the different phases through which the
problem has passed, and the various methods which have been successively
employed to arrive at its solution.

We will first endeavor to convey a clear idea of what is understood by the
velocity of light.

In order to account for the various phenomena of optics, physicists have
imagined two systems* in reference to the ultimate nature of light. According
to one, every luminous body throws out contjnually and in all directions into
space corpuscles of an extreme tenuity, which in penetrating our eye there
produce the sensation called light; this is the system of emission. According
to the other, light is the vibratory motion of an excessively rare fluid existing
in all space, and known under the name of ether ; a luminous body only pro-
duces and keeps up around itself this vibratory movement which is progres-
sively propagated to an indefinite distance ; this constitutes the system of undu-
lation. Can we certainly say that either system is a true expression of what
exists? We cannot. Fora long time one system as well as the other ac-
counted for all known optical phenomena; now we know that certain phe-_
nomena that we have succeeded in producing cannot be explained by the sys-
tem of emission, whilst the system of undulation logically embraces them;
the latter, therefore, of the two can alone be the true expression of the facts.
But it may happen that at some future day we will discover new phenomena
which will be no more explicable by the system of undulation than those men-
tioned can be by the system of emission. But however that may be, it is
necessary, in order to give clearness and precision to our reasoning, to represent
the phenomena as taking place according to one or the other system, provided
we do not absolutely give our mental consent to such a system as being a true
expression of existing facts.

In the system of emission the luminous corpuscles thrown out in all diree-
tions are in reality projectiles which move uniformly and in straight lines,
provided they are not submitted to causes of change of motion, such as those
which result from the meeting of ponderable or gross matter. ‘The velocity
with which these projectiles move in space is what we call the velocity of light.

* The word system is used by the author in this essay to designate a body of doctrine, and,
therefore, may mean either theory or hypothesis. See Prof. J. Henry’s Syllabus of Lectures
on Physics for the true meaning of these words, which, unfortunately, are so generally mis-
understood and thoughtlessly used. An hypothesis may be defined as an assumed law,
whereas a theory is ‘‘ the exact expression of the law of a class of facts,” and may be termed
a vindicated hypothesis.— Translator.

136 ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT.

According to the system of undulation light is produced by a succession of
vibratory motions of the ether which emanate from the luminous body and are
propagated indefinitely around it into space. We can arrive at a clear idea of
such propagation by observing the circular waves which dilate from a centre
of agitation on a smooth liquid surface, such, for example, as are produced when
we cast a stone into a calm lake. ‘The luminous waves are spherical, and have
for common centre the source of the light; they expand as they move forward,
like the circular waves formed on the surface of the water. If we imagine a
straight line drawn from the centre of vibration and extended indefinitely into
space, each luminous wave will reach the different points of that line along
which it uniformly progresses ; the velocity of the light is the length the wave
runs over on that line in the unit of time. But we can also have a clear idea
of the velocity of light without adopting any hypothesis in reference to the
manner in which it is produced. If a source of light, a candle for example, is
lighted or extinguished suddenly, this instantaneous phenomenon will not be
perceived at the same instant at all points of the space from which we can
observe it. If we are quite near to the light we will perceive it immediately ;
if we are far off there will be a certain amount of time between the production
of the phenomenon and its perception by the eye, and this time will be so much
the longer as the distance between the source of light and the eye is greater.
The phenomenon of which we have just spoken takes, therefore, a certain time
to run over the distance which separates the place of its production from the
eye of the observer, and it is natural to admit that it takes equal times to run
over equal portions of that distance; that is to say, that it progresses in any direc-
tion whatever, like a moving body animated with a uniform velocity. ‘The
velocity of light is the velocity with which a phenomenon of light is thus
propagated to a distance; or, in other terms, it is the distance at which the
eye ought to be placed trom the point where the phenomenon is produced, in
order that a unit of time may elapse between the instant of its production and
the instant of its perception by the eye.

After what has been said, nothing can be easier than to invent the means to
determine the velocity of light. It will suflice to proceed as we always do
when we desire to measure the velocity of a mass moving uniformly. If we
wish to determine, for example, the velocity of a train on a railroad, we place
ourselves in one of the ears, and, furnished with a second-watch, we observe
how many seconds elapse between the instant of passing one mile-post and the
instant of passing the next post following; if we thus find 2 minutes or 120
seconds, we divide the distance of 1 mile or 5,280 feet by 120, and the quotient
44 shows that the train runs over 44 feet in 1 second. In general, we observe
the time employed by the body to move over a known distance, and then we
divide the distance by the time expressed in seconds, and the quotient is the
velocity in one second of time.

In order to apply this method to the measure of the velocity of light, let us
imagine two sources of light, A and B, two lamps with reflectors, for example,
placed several thousand yards apart. If we suddenly place just before the
lamp A a screen, the observer at B will not at that instant see the light at A
disappear; he will see it disappear only after the time employed by the light
to run over the distance between the two lamps. If at the very instant that
the observer at B sees the light A disappear he screens, in his turn, the light B,
the observer at A will not see the light B disappear until a short time after it
-has been screened, on account of the time the light occupies to run over the
distance between the two lamps. The interval of time comprised between the
instant the lamp A was screened and the instant when the observer stationed ~
at that lamp perceived the disappearance of the lamp B, is, therefore, the time
employed by the light to run over twice the distance A B; if we measure this

, ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT. 137
time by any means whatsoever, we have only to divide double the distance A B
by the time found in order to obtain the velocity of the light.

In proceeding as we have just indicated, no matter how great may be the
distance of the two lamps A and B placed on the surface of the earth so that
either may be seen from the place where the other is stationed, we always find
that the time elapsed between the instant the screen is placed before the light
A and the instant when the light B disappears to the observer stationed at A is
absolutely inappreciable. It appears as if the extinction of the light of each
of the two lamps was perceived at the same instant, without any delay, at
the station of the other lamp; that is to say, as if the velocity of light was
infinitely great. This happens because the velocity of light, although not
infinitely great, yet is of a very high value; light going over in one second
about three hundred thousand kilometres, (about 190,000 miles,*) or 74 times
the circumference of the earth; it therefore does not employ, in the experi-
ments we have just explained, to go from one lamp to the other but a fraction
of a second, absolutely inappreciable by the ordinary means of observation.

Every one has observed that sound requires a certain length of time to come
from a distance. If we observe afar off a wood-cutter strike with his axe the
trunk of a tree, we see each blow some time hefore we hear the sound which
it occasions. On account of the extremely high velocity of light we can say
that we perceive the blow at the very instant it is given by the wood-cutter;
the interval of time which elapses between the instant when we see the blow
and the instant when we hear it, is therefore the time employed by the sound
to come from the tree to the place we occupy. This time, which is very appre-
ciable, is so much the longer as we are at a greater distance from the wood-
cutter. If we remove ourselves to such a distance that the interval is exactly
one second, then we will have but to measure the distance to the tree in order
to have the velocity of the sound. Instead of that, we can proceed as we indi-
cated for light, by replacing the lamps A and B by cannon whose discharge
we can instantly bring about. It is in operating thus that we have found that
sound runs over 333 metres in one second of time.t There is the greatest
analogy between the progressive transmission of light to adistance and the
progressive transmission of sound through the atmosphere; only light is propa-
gated with a velocity incomparably greater than sound. The clear conception
of the progressive transmission of sound to a distance which we have arrived
at from the preceding considerations renders it very easy to conceive the pro-
gressive transmission of light; and in order to understand clearly all we are
going to say of this last phenomenon we cannot do better than refer to the
analogous phenomenon of sound, which is directly accessible to our senses.

*Tn reducing the French measures of length to English, we have adopted Captain Kater’s
value of the'metre, the French unit of length, as equal to 39.37079 English inches, or 3.280899
English feet, or 0.6214 of an English mile. The brass scale made by Troughton for the
United States Coast Survey has been declared the standard of the United States, and the
value of the metre expressed in United States standard inches is given in the Coast Survey
Report, far 1853, as equal to 39. 36850535 United States standard inches, or 3.28070878
United States feet. Prof. Bache, in 1856, found that the Britisk bronze standard yard, No.
11, is shorter than the American yard by 0.00087 inch.— Translator.

+ It may be stated, in round numbers, that sound, in dry air and at the freezing tempera-
ture, travels at the rate of 1,090 feet, or 363 yards, per second, and every additional degree
of atmospheric temperature. on Fahrenheit’s scale, adds 1.14 foot to that velocity, so that at
62° Fahrenheit (which is the standard temperature of the British metrical system) it runs |
over 9,000 feet in’8 seconds, 122 British miles in a minute, or 765 miles in an hour, which
is about three-fourths of the diurnal velocity of the earth’s equator. Hence, in latitude 424,
if a gun be fired at the momenta star passes the meridian of any station, the sound will
teach any other station exactly west of it at the precise instant of the same star’s arriving on
tts meridian.—Sir J, Herschel.

138 ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGH?.

DISCOVERY OF THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT, BY ROBMER.

During a long period we had no knowledge of the velocity of light. On ac-
count of the extreme greatness of that velocity, the phenomena of light pro-
duced on the earth being perceived immediately at considerable distances on
the surface of the globe, it was usual to consider the passage of light through
space as absolutely instantaneous.* The honor of the discovery of the pro-_
gressive transmission of light and the determination of the value of its velocity
is due to Roémer, a Danish astronomer who was induced by Picard to settle in
France in 1672. He made the important discovery by examining and discuss-
ing with care the observations on the eclipse of the first satellite of Jupiter.

It is well known that Jupiter, the greatest of the planets which, like the earth,
circulates around the sun, is accompanied by four moons or satellites. These
satellites move around the planet in the same manner as the planets move
around the sun, conformably to the laws of Kepler; their elliptical orbits are
in planes slightly inclined to the plane of the orbit of Jupiter. The planets
and their satellites have not a light of their own, and we can only see them
when they are illuminated by the sun. If any obstacle prevents the light from
falling on one of these bodies, it becomes invisible, or, in other words, it is
eclipsed. This is what happens frequently to each of the satellites of Jupiter.
The satellite in circulating around its planet comes to a portion of its orbit which,
relatively to the sun, is behind Jupiter; the planet intercepting the rays of the
sun, the satellite is eclipsed for a certain time: this is a phenomenon entirely
simidar to the eclipses of the moon which we from time to time have the oppor-
tunity of observing. If we imagine a cone enveloping at the same time the
sun and Jupiter, so that the surface of the cone is tangential to the two spheres,
the light of the sun cannot reach any point of the space situate within the cone
and beyond Jupiter; this space is what we call the wmbra or umbral cone of
the planet. A satellite is eclipsed every time that in circulating around the
planet it penetrates this umbral cone; and the eclipse ceases the instant it has
traversed it. On account of the large transverse dimensions of the umbral
cone of Jupiter due to the size of the planet, and also on account of the slight
inclination of the orbits of its satellites to the orbit the planet describes around
the sun, these satellites penctrate at each of their revolutions the umbral cone;
there is an exception alone for the fourth satellite, (that which is the furthest
from the planet,) which passes sometimes above or below the umbral cone with-
out penetrating it, when it passes in the parts of its orbit the most distant from
the plane of the orbit of Jupiter.

The eclipses of the first satellite of Jupiter (that which is nearest to the
planet) are much more frequent than those of the other satellites, on account
of the rapidity with which it describes its orbit. These eclipses are repeated
at intervals of about forty-two hours and a half. Also the eccentricity of the
orbit of this satellite being insensible, its movement around the planet is circular
and uniform: there necessarily results a great regularity in the occurrence of
the successive eclipses. ‘Ihese phenomena are easily observed from the earth,

* The experiment of the lights explained above was made by Galileo, and did not give any
result. Subsequently, Descartes thought of a celestial phenomenon which he imagined would
be affected by the progressive transmission of light. He saw that if light occupies a certain
time to traverse the distance which separates us from the moon, then that satellite, at the
moment it is eclipsed by the interposition of the earth between the sun and the moon, should
not appear to occupy in the heavens a position diametrically opposite to the sun; it should,
on the contrary, appear notably distant from that position. Observation did not show any-
thing similar, and he concluded that light was transmitted instantaneously through space.
These negative results only prove that the velocity of light is too great to produce, in these
circumstances, effects appreciable by the means of observation employed. They can, at the
most, as Huyghens remarks, furnish an inferior limit to the velocity of light, and do not at
all prove that this velocity is infinite.

ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT. 139

even with telescopes of rather low power, which suffice to render the satellites
of Jupiter very distinct when they are not eclipsed. We ought, however, to
remark that it is never possible to observe the beginning and the end of the
same eclipse of the first satellite, because, as we only see the umbral cone ob-
liquely, a good portion of this cone, at the distance of the first satellite, is hidden
from us by the planet itself. If we observe the satellite when it enters the
umbral cone, it passes soon behind the planet, which prevents us from seeing it
go out of the cone. If at other times we observe it when it comes out of the
umbral cone, a short time before, and especially at the moment it enters the
cone, it is hidden from us by the planet. When Jupiter is to the west of the
sun, the umbral cone, which is always on the side away from the sun, is situate
to the west of the planet; we therefore see the first satellite enter the umbral
cone, but we do not see it go out, or, to use the language of astronomers, we
see the zmmersion of the satellite, but we do not see the emersion. When
Jupiter is to the east of the sun, it is the contrary that happens: the umbral
cone is projected to the east of the planet, and we can observe the emersion
whilst the immersion is invisible.

Whilst in Padua, in 1610, Galileo discovered the satellites of Jupiter. The
rapidity of the displacement of these little spheres to one side and to the other
of the planet, the frequency of their extinction and of their reillumination,
naturally excited the curiosity of astronomers, who accumulated observations
on them. It was in studying these observations on the immersions and the
emersions of the first satellite, in order to arrive at the means of predicting
their eclipses, that Roémer made the capital discovery which we now propose
to discuss.

In order to fully comprehend the influence of the progressive transmission of
light through space on the observations of the eclipses of the first satellite of
Jupiter, and clearly to understand the manner in which Roémer was enabled
to deduce the value of the velocity of light from the numerous observations of
this phenomenon which had up to that period been tabulated, let us take an
example relative to the progressive transmission of sound in our atmosphere.
Suppose that the same sound is repeated regularly at equal intervals during
any given time; this sound is produced, for example, by a wood-cutter who
strikes with his axe a tree, or by a blacksmith who strikes with a hammer a
piece of iron on his anvil. If we are quite near to the spot where the sound
is produced we hear and see atthe same instant each blow. If we remove to
a distance we no longer hear the blows at the same time we see them, and
the interval of time which elapses between seeing and hearing the same blow
becomes greater as the distance is increased. If, when far otf, we come near,
then go off again, and then come near, and so on, the interval of time between
seeing and hearing the same blow increases as we increase the distance, dimin-
ishes as we diminish the distance, increases again with the distance, and so on:
it thence results that, notwithstanding the regularity with which the blows of
the axe or hammer are given, the successive sounds which we hear have not
equal intervals, since the sounds which follow the blows which produce them
are at intervals of time which alternately increase and diminish. When we
walk towards the wood-cutter or the blacksmith, the sounds which we succes-
sively hear are at shorter intervals of time than the blows of the axe or
hammer, and the sounds are at greater intervals than the blows when we walk
away from the wood-cutter. In walking with a regular step the circumference
of a circle in the neighborhood of the place where the wood-cutter or the black-
smith works, we will be sometimes further off and sometimes nearer to the place;
and while we observe the blows succeed each other with great regularity, we
hear the sounds occasioned by these blows succeed each other sometimes with
diminishing intervals, and at other times with increasing intervals. ‘The irregu-
larity in the succession of the sounds is rendered very sensible by the continuous

140 ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT.

variation in the time comprised between seeing and hearing each blow; but
even when we only hear the blows without seeing them, that irregularity is
always detected by the attentive consideration of the successive sounds; it
seems as if the sounds experienced a periodic perturbation—that they take place
now before, now after the instants at which we ought to hear them so that they
would follow each other regularly. An observer placed in the conditions
which we have supposed, and ignorant of the conditions of the progressive*
transmission of sound, and who would thus hear the sounds of the axe or ham-
mer succeed each other now with rapidity, now with slowness, as he walked
round his circular path, might well imagine, at first, that the blows themselves
had this irregularity; but in thinking of the manner in which the blows are
produced, he would have reason to think that such a periodie irregularity in
their production was not very probable; and especially as he would remark that
the retardation and acceleration of the successive blows coincided always with
his going away from or his approach to the place where they originated, he
would naturally be led to attribute the irregularity of the succession of sounds
to his own change of position, and would thus be led to the discovery of the
progressive transmission of sound.

It was in exactly similar conditions that Roémer found himself when he
examined and discussed with care the observations of the eclipses of the first
satellite of Jupiter. This satellite, in entering the umbral cone of Jupiter,
suddenly loses its light, and in coming out of the umbral cone it instantly
regains it. There is, therefore, in the successive immersions and emersions of
that satellite, a series of phenomena of light which are reproduced as regularly
as the blows of the hammer of which we have spoken above. ‘The astronomer
who observes these phenomena is carried by the earth each year over an orbit
which differs little from a circle having the sun as a centre. It is true that
Jupiter moves at the same time around the sun, so that the place where the
eclipse of its first satellite takes place is displaced continually round that cen-
tral body ; but the time of the revolution of the earth around the sun being
much shorter than that of Jupiter, the distance of the observer from that
planet and from its satellite experiences the same-alternative increase and dimi-
nution of distance as if Jupiter were stationary. ‘The period of the returns of
the observer to the same distance from Jupiter is alone modified; it is about
399 days instead of only one year. If, therefore, light is not imstantaneously
transmitted to all distances, if it requires an appreciable time to run over a
length such as the diameter of the orbit of the earth, we ought to find the
effects in the observations of the eclipses of which we have just spoken. If
from observations continued through several years we deduce the mean interval
of time which separates two consecutive eclipses, we ought to find that the
time is greater than the interval really observed between two consecutive
eclipses while the earth is approaching Jupiter than the interval observed
while the earth is going away from Jupiter. If, in using the value of this
mean interval of time which elapses between one eclipse and the following and
setting out from an eclipse observed when the earth is at its mean distance ;
from Jupiter, we wish to predict the return of future eclipses, it happens that |
the instants when the eclipses are really observed are sometimes in advance of
and sometimes in retard of the predicted epochs, aceording as the earth is
nearer to or further from Jupiter than at the moment of departure from the
point of mean distance. ‘The times furnished by the observations for the com-
mencement or the ending of the different eclipses will therefore appear sub-
mitted to a periodic perturbation agreeing with the period of variation of the
distance of the earth from Jupiter. ‘This is precisely what Roémer found in
discussing the numerous*observations which he had in his possession of the
eclipses of Jupiter’s first satellite; he thus found that light employs 22
minutes to run over the diameter of the orbit of the earth around the sun, and

ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT. 141

consequently 11 minutes to run over the distance which separates us from that
body. He published his discovery in a memoir presented to the Academy of
Sciences of Paris in 1675, to which he had been elected a member a short time
after his arrival in France. The following is the account given in the Histoire
de l’ Académie, t. i, p. 213, année 1676 :

“Tt was only from this vast mass of observations that we commenced to see a truth of
physics hitherto unknown to all philosophers, and so ignored that the contrary was almost a
fixed principle.

‘‘4 great number of very exact calculations having been made of the revolutions of the
first satellite of Jupiter, and consequently of all its eclipses caused by the umbra-of Jupiter,
he found that at certain times, it came out of the shadow a few minutes too late, and at other
times sooner than it should have done, and he could not account for that variation by known
principles. In comparing these times with each other, M. Roémer saw that the satellite
came too late from the shadow always when the earth, in its annual movement, was going
away from Jupiter, and too soon when it was approaching the planet. From these facts M.
Roémer began to form the ingenious conjecture that light requires an appreciabie time to
traverse space. That granted, if the satellite appeared to come out of the shadow too late
when we were furthest off from it, it did not follow that it really did emerge too late, but its
light took longer to come to us, for, so to speak, we had run away from it. On the contrary,
when we went to meet it, the time of the satellite in the shadow should appear shorter.

“*To test the truth of this idea, he calculated what differences in the emersions of the satel-
lite corresponded to different distances of the earth, and he found that the light was retarded
eleven minutes for a length equal to the distance of the earth from thesun. From that datum
he announced to the Academy, in the beginning of September, that if his supposition was
correct, an emersion of the fwst satellite, which would take place on the 16th of November
following, would happen ten minutes later than it should according to the ordinary cal-
culation.

‘*The event agreed with the prediction of M. Roémer. Notwithstanding this success, as
the idea was very new, it was not at first generally received. The savans were cautious not
to be led astray by the charms of novelty. The satellite has not for the centre of its motion
the centre of Jupiter. Moreover, its revolutions are more rapid when it is nearer the sun,
and this should produce irregularities in its motion. But these irregularities do not exactly
follow those just mentioned. They even imagined another astronomical hypothesis, which
would fulfil all the conditions, but it was too unlike anything hitherto known of the heavens.
It might satisfy the calculation, but it had not that probability which could satisfy the minds

*“We must, therefore, admit the retardation of light as probable, according to physics,
even though not proved by astronomy.”’

The admirable discovery of Roémer was made known in an article pub-
lished in the Journal des Savants of Mouday, December 7, 1676, under the
title of Demonstration touchant le mouvement de la lumiere trouvé, par M.
Roémer, del’ Academie Royale des Sciences. ‘This article, accompanied by a
figure, gives a clear and sufficiently detailed explanation of the influence of
the progressive transmission of light on the observations of the eclipses of
Jupiter’s satellites.

CONFIRMATION OF THE IDEAS OF ROEMER BY THE DISCOVERY OF THE ABER-
RATION OF LIGHT, BY BRADLEY.

The ideas of Roémer on the progressive transmission of light through space,
and the explanation that he had thence deduced of the alternate delays and
accelerations in the immersions and emersions of the first satellite of Jupiter,
although generally admitted by savans, were not, however, accepted without
dispute. ‘The point in consideration was the periodic perturbation in the move-
ment of a single celestial body—the satellit.e -According to the observations
this body was sometimes in advance of and sometimes behind the position it
ought to occupy according to the preconceived ideas of the nature of its
motion; instead of attributing these delays and accelerations to the change of
position of the observer and to the progressive transmission of light, could it
not be regarded as indicating a real perturbation in the movement of the satel-
lite, due to a cause not yet discovered? The ideas of Roémer required, there-
fore, a confirmation which would entirely relieve them of doubt. This con-
firmation was given in a remarkable manner some time after. It was fur-

142 ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT.

nished by the discovery of aberration, made fifty years later by the celebrated
English astronomer Bradley.

This phenomenon of aberration consists in an apparent displacement which
all ‘the stars and planets experience on account of the combination of the
velocity of the earth with the velocity of light. In order to explain this we
will take another example from among familiar things, and with which we are
all acquainted.

Suppose that we are in a railroad car during a rain, without wind, so that
the drops falls vertically. When the train stops we see the rain-drops moving,
as they really do, each in a vertical line. But when the train runs on the rails,
things are completely changed. The drops now seem to fall obliquely, as if a
strong wind blew in a direction contrary to that of the train’s motion, and
obliged the vertical lines, naturally described by the rain-drops, to be inelined
in the direction of its action. It is easy to explain this. From the interior of
the car we observe what passes outside through the rectangular opening of the
window. Let us consider specially a drop of rain which we perceive near the
upper angle or corner of the window on the side in the direction of the motion.
If the car was stationary we would see the drop descend along the vertical
side of the window of which that corner is the upper extremity. But the car
moves at the same time as the rain-drop, and at the moment it arrives at the
bottom edge of the window sash it is appreciably behind the vertical edge;
the quantity it is behind is exactly the distance run over by the car while the
rain-drop was descending the whole height of the window-sash. The rain-
drop seems to run over a straight line which joins the point where it enters
the space of the window-pane and the point where it goes out; and as this
straight line has necessarily a certain obliquity, the rain-drop appears to descend
obliquely ; and all the other drops of rain moving absolutely the same as the
one we have just considered, seemed also to move in this oblique line, which
is but an appearance caused by our own motion while we look at the falling
rain. If, for example, the car progressed exactly the breadth of the window
while the rain-drop fell through a distance equal to its height, a drop appearing
in the upper corner of the window would seem to run over the diagonal drawn
to the opposite lower corner of the pane.

We will remark, in passing, that if we measure the apparent obliquity of the
rain, we can thence deduce the ratio of the velocity of the rain-drops to that
of the train, since we know the lengths of the paths run over in the same time
by the drops and by the car; and if we know one of these velocities, for
example that of the train, we can calculate the other, that of the rain. This
method, entirely practical, was proposed several years ago as furnishing the
means of accurately measuring the velocity of falling rain.

Thus from the simple fact that the observer is in motion, the bodies which
move in his neighborhood do not appear to have the motion which they have
in reality, the direction of their motion being altered by this circumstance, and
that so much the more as the velocity of the observer is greater. |

Keeping always our illustration of vertically falling rain, observed from
the interior of a railroad car in motion, suppose that the train gradually
changes its direction, and from running north to south it changes to run from
east to west. On account of the motion of the car the rain appears driven
against the train by a wind blowing from west to east. If the railroad is built
in the form of a circumference of a circle, so that the train in running over its
whole length comes again to the point of departure, the rain which really falls
vertically appears from the interior of the car to fall obliquely under the action
of a wind blowing successively from all points of the horizon.

Similar circumstances are presented when the rain, instead of falling verti-
cally, falls with a certain obliquity, caused by a wind blowing regularly. If
the wind throws the rain in a direction contrary to that of the car, the motion

een

ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT. 143

of the car causes the rain to appear to fall more obliquely than it really does;
if the wind blows the rain in a direction with that of the car, the obliquity
with which it really falls appears diminished, and may, according to the
circumstances, be annulled or even changed in direction; if the wind makes
any angle whatsoever with the railroad, the drops of rain will always appear
to fall behind the positions they would have if the car were at rest. In a word,
the direétion according to which the observer seated in the car sees the rain
fall is more than the real direction of the rain modified as it would be if blown
by a wind in a direction contrary to the motion of the train. If the car runs
over acircular road the influence of its movement on the apparent direction of
the fall of the rain-drops changes progressively, so that the rain seems suc-
cessively to come from different points of the heaven situate all round the
point from which it really falls.

If what has just been said is clearly understood, it will not be difficult also
to understand the phenomenon of aberration discovered by Bradley, a phe-
nomenon which presents the closest analogy with the apparent change in direc-
tion of the rain-drops of which we have just spoken. Replace the rain by the
light which comes from the stars, and the car moving on the circular railroad
by the earth which annually moves around the sun in an orbit which differs
little from a circle. The observer who perceives the light coming from the
stars, and who is carried by the earth in its annual movement around the sun,
receives that light from positions in space which differ from the directions in
which it would come to him if he were at rest. so that to allow the light to
traverse the axis of his telescope he is obliged to give it a direction different
from what it would have if lhe were not himself translated with a certain
velocity. In the example of the rain-drops observed from the interior of the
moving car, if we placed near the window a tube so directed that a drop of
rain entering the top would pass through the tube without touching the sides,
that tube would have the direction of the lines the rain appears to describe;
on the contrary, we would have to give it the true direction of the falling rain
if the car did not move. This tube stands in the place of the telescope, which
the observer so directs that the light coming from a star traverses its whole
length to arrive at his eye placed at the other end behind the eye-piece. If
the earth did not move, the telescope ought to point in the real path of the light
coming from the star—that is to say, in the straight line drawn from the
observer to the star; but the earth being in motion, the telescope has to be
directed in the,apparent path of the light, a line which indefinitely prolonged
into space would not pass through the star, but considerably in advance of it,
when we refer its position to the motion of the earth. We therefore see the
star in a point'where it does not exist, and that apparent deviation, which is
but an illusion arising from the motion of the observer in space, changes
gradually in direction as the earth moves over the different parts of its annual
orbit, so that it returns to exactly the same conditions in the course of a year.
Each star, therefore, seems to revolve around its real position, which point we
do not see; and the angular distance which separates it from that real position
depends not upon the distance which exists between us and it, but solely on
the ratio which exists between the velocity of light and the velocity of the
earth. If the two velocities were comparable, that is to say, if the ratio of the
greater to the smaller was not a very large number of units, which is the case
with the velocity of falling rain compared to the velocity of the train, the
apparent deviation of which we have spoken would be very considerable, like
the deviation we observe in the falling rain when we are in a ear, which from
a state of rest commences to run rapidly over the rail. If, on the contrary,
the velocity of light were incomparably greater than that of the earth, and as
infinity compared with the latter, the apparent deviation of the rays of light,
due to the velocity of the earth, would be extremely small, and might, on

144 ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT.

account of its minuteness, escape our investigations, notwithstanding the pre-
cision of the means of observation employed by modern astronomy. But
neither of these cases is presented for our consideration; it is true that the
velocity of the earth is very small compared to that of light, but not so small
that the apparent deviation due to the velocity of displacement of the observer
is insensible: this deviation, for its maximum, is about 20 seconds of a degree,
a quantity not only appreciable, but also even measurable with great precision
by the aid of the instruments which now exist in observatories. ion

It is in this apparent deviation of each star, a deviation which changes in diree-
tion from one period of the year to another, so that the star appears to revolve
annually around its real position, that consists the phenomenon of aberration
discovered by Bradley. We will content ourselves with having given in what
precedes a general idea of the cause of the phenomenon, and we will not en-
deavor to show how by setting out from the causes indicated we can find the
laws it follows during the different times of the year. We will simply state
that the total apparent motion which results to each star takes place in an
ellipse whose greater axis, as it is for all the stars, is seen under an angle of
about forty seconds of a degree; this greater axis is always directed parallel
to the ecliptic. As to the smaller axis of the ellipse, it varies from one star to
another, and it is so much the smaller as the star is nearer the ecliptic: equal
to the greater axis for a star situate at the pole of the ecliptic, reduced to zero
for a star situate directly on the ecliptic. The ellipse of aberration, therefore,
corresponds with a circle at the pole of the ecliptic, and in going from that pole
it becomes more and more flattened as the star to which it corresponds is found
nearer to the ecliptic, so as to be reduced to a simple straight line of a length
equal to the greater axis for each star situate on this great circle of the sphere.

As it often happens in the science of observation, Bradley discovered aberra-
tion without seeking for it. Molyneux had placed at Kew, near London, an
instrument constructed with the greatest care by the celebrated Graham, and
destined to observe with all possible precision the passage of stars near the
zenith. 'The object that astronomers had in view was to arrive at some precise
data of the annual parallax of the stars. We know that the annual parallax
of the stars is the displacement with respect to each other which the different
stars ought to appear to us to have at different periods of the year, because we
successively see them from different points of the orbit of the earth, so that,
in going from some and in approaching others, we see them under different
aspects as the earth carries us in its motion around the sun. Since the
general adoption of the system of Copernicus, astronomers were desirous to
prove the existence of that annual parallax which is a necessary consequence,
and which would be regarded as an incontestable proof of the truth of this
system. With the instrument of Molyneux were made the first observations
which led to the discovery of aberration. The following is his account of the
discovery, given in a letter to Halley :*

‘*Mr. Molyneux’s apparatus was completed and fitted for observing about the end of
November, 1725, and on the 3d day of December following the bright star in the head of
Draco (marked y by Bayer) was for the first time observed as it passed near the zenith, and
its situation carefully taken with the instrument. The like observations were made on the

Sth, lith, and 12th days of the same month, and there appearing no material difference in -

the place of the star, a further repetition of them at this season seemed needless, it being a
part of the year wherein no sensible alteration of parallax in this star could soon be expected.
it was chiefly, therefore, curiosity that tempted me (being then at Kew, where the instrument
was fixed) to prepare for observing the star on December 17, when, having adjusted the
instrument as usual, I perceived that it passed a little more southerly this day than when it
was observed before. Not suspecting any other cause of this appearance, we first concluded

*A letter from the Rev. Mr. James Bradley, Savilian Professor of Astronomy at Oxford,
and F’. Rk. 8., to Dr. Edmond Halley, Astronom. Reg., &c., giving an account of a new dis-
covered motion of the fixed stars. —Philosophical Transactions R. S., No. 406, December, 1728.

Aiko $ 5 u

} ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGIIT. 145

that it was owing to the uncertainty of the observations, and that either this or the foregoing
were not so exact as we had before supposed, for which reason we purposed to repeat the
observation again, in order to ‘determine from whence this difference proceeded, and upon
doing it, on December 20, I found that the star passed still more southerly than on the former
observations. This sensible alteration the more surprised us, in that it was the contrary way
from what it would have been had it proceeded from an annual parallax of the star; but
being now, pretty well satisfied that it could not be entirely owing to the want of exactness
in the observations, and having no notion of anything else that could cause such an appa-
rent motion as this in the star, we began to think that some change in the materials, &c., of
the instrument itself might have occasioned it. Under these apprehensions we remained
some time, but being at length fully convinced, by several trials, of the great exactnoss of
the instrument, and finding, by the gradual increase of the star’s distance from the pole, that
there must be some recular cause that produced it, we took care to examine nicely, at the
time of each observation, how much it was, and about the beginning of March, 1726, the star
was found to be twenty seconds more southerly than at the time of tho first observation. It
now seemed to have arrived at its utmost limit southward, because, in several trials made
about this time, no sensible difference was observed in its situation. By the middle of April
it appeared to be returning back again towards the north, and about the beginning of June
it passed at the same distance from the zenith as it had done in December, when it was first
observed.

‘From the quick alteration of this star’s declination about this time, (it increased a second
in three days, ) it was concluded that it would now proceed northward, as it before had gone
southward, of its present situation; and it happened as was conjectured, for the star con-
tinued to move northward till September following, when it again became stationary, being
then near twenty seconds more northerly than in June, and no less than thirty-nine secouds
more northerly than it was in March. From September the star returned towards the south,
till it arrived, in December, to the same situation it was in at that time twelve months, allow-
ing for the differenco of declination on account of the precession of the equinox.

‘«This was a sufficient proof that the instrument had not been the cause of this apparent
motion of the star, and to find one adequate to an effect seemed a difficulty. A mutation of
the earth’s axis was one of the first things that offered itself upon this occasion, but it was
soon found to be insufiicient; for though it might have accounted for the change of declina-
tion in y Draconis, yet it would not at the same time agree with the phenomena in other stars,
particularly in a small one almost opposite, in right ascension, to y Draconis, at about the
same distance from the north pole of the equator; for though this star seemed to move the
sameway, as a mutation of the earth's axis would have made it, yet (it changing its decli-
nation but about half as much as y Draconis in the same time, as appeared upon comparing
the observations of both, made upon the same days, at different seasons of the year) this
plainly proved that the apparent motion of the stars was not occasioned by a real mutation,
since, if that had been the cause, the alteration in both stars would have been nearly equal.

“The great regularity of the observations left no room to doubt but that there was some
regular cause that produced this unexpected motion, which did not depend on the uncertainty
or variety of the seasons of the year. Upon comparing the observations with each other, it
was discovered that in both the before-mentioned stars the apparent difference of declination
from the maxima was always nearly proportional to the versed sine* of the sun’s distance
from the equinoctial points. This was an inducement to think that the cause, whatever it
was, had some relation to the sun’s situation with respect to these. points. But not being
able to frame any hypothesis, at that time, sufficient to solve all the phenomena, and being
very desirous to search a little further into this matter, I began to think of erecting an instru-
ment for myself at Wansted, that, having it always at band, I might, with the more ease and
certainty, inquire into the laws of this new motion. The consideration, likewise, of being
able, by another instrument, to confirm the truth of the observations hitherto made with Mr.
Molyneux’s was no small inducement to me; but the chief cause of all was the opportunity
L should thereby have of trying in what manner other stars were affected by the same cause,
whatever it was; for Mr. Molyneux’s instrument being originally designed for observing y
Draconis, (in order, as I said before, to try whether it had any sensible parallax,) was so
contrived as to be capable of but little alteration in its direction—not above seven or eight
minutes of a degree—and there being few stars within half that distance from the zenith of
Kew bright enough to be well observed, he could not, with his instrument, thoroughly ex-
amino how this cause affected stars differently situated with respect to the equinoctial and
solstitial points of the ecliptic.

‘* These considerations determined me; and by the contrivance and direction of the same
ingenious person, Mr. Graham, my instrument was fixed up August 19, 1727. As I had no
convenient place where I could make use of so long a telescope as Mr. Molyneux’s, I con
tented myself with one of but little more than half the length of his, (viz: of about 124 feet,

*The versed sine of an arc A B of a circle is the distance comprised between the ex-
tremity A of the are and the foot of the perpendicular, let fall from the extremity B on the
radius drawn to the point A.

10 s

146 ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT.

his being 241,) judging, from the experience which I already had, that this radius would be
long enough to adjust the instrument to a sufficient degree of exactness, and I have had no
reason since to change my opinion, for, from all the trials I have yet made, I am very well
satisfied that, when it is carefully rectified, its situation may be securely depended upon to
half a second. As the place where my instrument was to be hung in some measure deter-
mined its radius, so did it also the length of the arch, or limb, on which the divisions were
made to adjust it, for the arch could not conveniently be extended further than to reach to
about six and one-fourth degrees on each side my zenith. This, indeed, was sufficient, since
it gave me an opportunity of making choice of several stars, very different both in magnitude
and situation, there being more than two huadred inserted in the British catalogue that may
be observed with it. I needed not to have extended the limb so far, but that I was willing
to take in Capella, the only star of the first magnitude that comes so near my zenith.

‘‘ My instrument being fixed, I immediately began to observe such stars as I judged most
proper to give me light into the cause of the motion already mentioned. There was variety
enough of small ones, and not less than twelve that I could observe through all seasons of
the year, they being bright enough to be seen in the day-time, when nearest the sun.”

Bradley here enters into some details on the results which he obtained in the
observations on different stars. He then adds:

‘‘When the year was completed I began to examine and compare my observations, and
having pretty well satisfied myself as to the general laws of the phenomena, I then endea-
vored to find out the cause of them. I was already convinced that the apparent motion of
the stars was not owing to a mutation of the earth’s axis. The next thing that offered itself
was an alteration in the direction of the plumb-line with which the instrument was constantly
rectified; but this, upon trial, proved insufficient. Then I considered what refraction might
do; but here, also, nothing satisfactory occurred. At last I conjectured that all the pheno-
mena hitherto mentioned proceeded from the progressive motion of light and the earth’s annual
motion in its orbit, for I perceived that, if light was propagated in time, the apparent place
of a fixed object would not be the same when the eye is at rest as when it is moving in any
other direction than that of the line passing through the eye and object, and that when the
eye is moving in different directions the apparent place of the object would be different.”’

Bradley examines then, in detail, the apparent positions which the stars
should have from the combination of the velocity of the earth with the velocity
of the propagation of light through space, and he finds a perfect agreement
between the results thus arrived at and those furnished by observation. ‘This
change in position of the stars which he had studied with such care was there-
fore explained, and he was enabled also, from the magnitude of these changes
of position, to determine the ratio of the velocity of light to the velocity of
translation of the earth. In making this determination from the data given by
his observations on the various stars he had studied, he arrives at very con-
cordant results, whence he concludes that the greater axis of the ellipse of aber-
ration, which is the same for all the stars, has an amplitude of forty and a half
seconds. It follows that the velocity of light is 10,188 times greater than the
velocity of the earth, (the mean velocity being understood,) so that the light
ought to take eight minutes and thirteen seconds to come from the sun to us.
Bradley, referring here to the discovery of Roémer, says:

“Tt is well known that Mr. Roémer, who first attempted to account for an apparent
inequality in the times of the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites by the hypothesis of the progres-
sive motion of light, supposed that it spent about eleven minutes of time in its passage from
the sun to us, but it hath since been concluded by others, from the like eclipses, that it is
propagated as far in about seven minutes. The velocity of light, therefore, deduced from
the foregoing hypothesis, is, as it were, a mean betwixt what had at different times been
determined from the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites.”

After the discovery .of Bradley, the progressive transmission of light became
an incontestable fact. Here we do not consider merely the perturbation affeet-
ing the position of a single star as in the phenomenon discovered by Roémer,
a perturbation that we might, in truth, regard as really existing in the motion
of the satellite, although we might not be able to give the ultimate cause. But
in the new phenomenon discovered by Bradley we observe all the stars sub-
jected to a perturbation of the same nature, all following the same laws, and
not varying from each other, but by reason of their different positions relatively
to the ecliptic. This general perturbation, evidently owing to a single general

Se

a

——— Se

— —_——_

ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT. 147

‘cause, irrespective of each individual star, is explained most satisfactorily by
the hypothesis of the progressive transmission of light, and the result is in per-
feet accord with the deductions of Roémer, from the observations of the eclipses
of Jupiter’s satellites. Such an agreement of circumstances does not allow of
the least doubt as to the truth of Roémer’s conception. ;

We will remark, in passing, that aberration, which is a result due to the com-
bination of the velocity of light with the velocity of the earth, in its annual
movement around the sun, furnished at the same time a proof in favor of the
system of Copernicus—a proof which had, up to that period, been vainly sought
in the annual parallax of the stars.

‘This phenomenon, discovered, studied, and so well explained by Bradley,
had not remained entirely unknown before his time. In fact, in the work of
Picard, entitled Voyage d’ Uranibourg, speaking cf the different values which
Tycho had found, for the height of the pole at his observatory of Uranibourg,
we read the following passage:

‘* Besides that, there is an obstacle in the way of the use of the polar star, (for determining
the height of the pole,) which, from one season to another, experiences certain variations
which l'yeho had not remarked, and which I observed nearly ten years ago, which consists
in this—that, although the polar star approaches continually the pole* by about twenty
seconds, it nevertheless happens that towards the month of April the inferior meridian height
of that star becomes less, by several seconds, than it appeared at the preceding winter sol-
stice, instead of which it should have been greater by five seconds, and, consequently, in the
months of August and September its superior meridian height is found to be nearly that which
it was observed to have in winter, and sometimes even greater, although it ought to have
diminished from ten to fifteen seconds; but, finally, towards the end of the year all is com-
aig td so that the polar star appears nearer to the pole by about twenty seconds than it
was before.

There is no denying that we have here the annual change of position due to
aberration. Picard adds, a little further on:

‘“To tell the truth, I have not as yet been able to imagine any explanation that satisties
me.”

Delambre, who cites these passages in his Histoire de l’ Astronomie Moderne,
t. ii, page 616, accompanies them with the following reflection :

“When Roémer, brought into 'rance by Picard, measured the velocity of light, he little
imagined, notwithstanding the identity of the annual period, that his discovery had anything
in common with those variations which had for so long troubled Picard, who, no doubt, had
often spoken of them.”

In the two phenemena, of which we have successively spoken, the progres-
sive transmission of light does not play the same part. If the observations of
the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites unveiled to Roémer a periodic perturbation,
agreeing with the successive augmentations and diminutions of the distance of
Jupiter from the earth, that is owing to the time the light employs to traverse
the earth’s orbit; the velocity of the earth has nothing to do with the ampli-
tude of the phenomenon, which depends entirely on the dimensions of its orbit.
_In the phenomenon of aberration, on the contrary, it is the velocity of the earth
which is principally concerned ; and it is of little consequence whether its orbit
be small or large. If we transport ourselves in thought to the planet Mars,
which describes an orbit of larger dimensions than the earth, but which at the
same time moves with a less velocity, we will sec that the two phenomena of
which we speak will vary as to their magnitude in an inverse manner: the
eclipses of the first satcllite of Jupiter will appear to experience a greater per-
turbation, and the aberration of the stars will be less. The contrary will happen
if we place ourselves on the planet Venus, which has a greater velocity of
translation than the earth, and runs over a smaller orbit: the aberration of the

* On account of the precession of the equinoxes.

148 ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT.

‘stars will be augmented, and the eclipses of the first satellite of Jupiter will
present in their succession a smaller perturbation.

The observations of the immersions of Jupiter’s satellites present some un-
‘certainty, as these bodies traverse the penumbra of Jupiter before entering the
pure umbra; so that in their movement around the planet, the latter screens them
gradually from the sun’s rays until they are completely cut off; so that the
light of a satellite in eclipsing, insensibly decreases to total extinetion. ‘The
time of the satellite’s eclipse may therefore vary, according as we make use of
‘a telescope of greater or less power, and as the atmosphere is more or less
transparent. ‘The same remarks apply to the emersions of the satellites. On
the other hand, in supposing that the times of immersions and of emersions
have been exactly observed, it is further necessary, in the irregularities which
the succession of these phenomena present, to eliminate what is due to the eccen-
tricity of the orbit of the satellite, and to the perturbations with which it is
really affected, from what is but an appearance arising from the progressive
transmission of light. It is for these reasons that the first satellite is selected
as the most proper to furnish the data for the determination of the velocity of
light; the greater velocity of its motion and the small depth of the penumbra
*at the point where it crosses it, causes it to lose its light more rapidly than the
other satellites; also the almost entire absence of eccentricity in its orbit renders
its motion more regular, and thus gives more prominence to the irregularity due
to the time that the light takes to traverse the orbit of the earth. But we can
never arrive at but a rough approximation of the velocity of light as deduced
from the observations of the eclipses of this satellite, as Bradley has shown in
the last paragraph cited from his letter; since the results arrived at by this
means, for the time employed by the light to come from the sun to the earth,
varies from seven to eleven minutes.

The phenomena of aberration furnish far more precise data for the determin-
ation of the velocity of light. As all the stars are affected by aberration, we
ean multiply at will observations which have a great degree of precision.
Bradley estimates that the error in hig determination of eight minutes and thir-
teen seconds for the light to travel from the sun to the earth cannot exceed
ten seconds.

Employing the most exact means of modern science, Mr. W. Struve, director
of the Central Russian Observatory, near St. Petersburg, made numerous ob-
servations during three years (from April, 1840, to the end of 1842) to obtain
the exact value of aberration. In discussing these observations, he found that
the half of the greater axis of aberration, which is the same for all stars, has
an amplitude of 20.45 seconds; whence it results that the velocity of light is
10,089 times greater than the mean velocity of the earth in its orbit.

The earth employing 365} days to run over its orbit, light takes 10,089 times

less, namely 52 minutes and 8 seconds, to go over a line of the same length;

and regarding that orbit as the cireumference of a circle, we have but to divide
52 minutes 8 seconds by twice the ratio of the circumference to the diameter
(3.1416,) to have the time employed in traversing its radius—that is to say, the
mean distance of the sun from the earth. We thus find 8 minutes 18 seconds
the number which is now adopted by all astronomers.

The observations of the eclipses of Jupiter’s first satellite, and those of the
phenomena of aberration, lead directly, as we have just seen, although with a
different degree of approximation, to the determination of the time light occupies
to run over the mean distance of the sun from the earth. ''o deduce from this
the absolute value of the velocity of light referred to our ordinary units of
length, the metre, (the foot or the mile,) we must know how many metres (miles)
are contained in the distance from the sun to the earth. ‘The value of this
distance is found by means of the parallax of the sun; we designate thus the
angle under which, being at the sun’s centre, we would see the radius of the

ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF ‘LIGHT. 149

earth. ‘The sun’s parallax, calculated from the observations of the last transit
of Venus over the disk of the sun in 1769, is fixed at 8.57 seconds; hence the
distance of the sun from the earth is equal to 24,109 times the radius of the
earth, or to 153,500,000 kilometres (or to 95,384,900 miles.) As this length
is run over by the light in 8 minutes 18 seconds or in 498 seconds, we conclude
that the velocity of light is 308,000 kilometres (or 191,391 miles) in one second.
However, for some years several circumstances have conspireu to make us
believe that the determination of 8.57 seconds given as the value of the sun’s
parallax is too small, and that the parallax ought to be augmented by 2 quan-
tity not less than the thirtieth of its value, which would elevate it to about 8.9
seconds. From this increase in parallax:results a diminution in the earth’s dis-
tance from the sun, and consequently in the distance gone over in 8 minutes
18 seconds by the light; the velocity of light will therefore be reduced to a little
less than 300,000 kilometres (or 186,420 miles) in a second. 'The next transit
of Venus,* which will happen in 1874, cannot fail to set at rest all doubts which

‘may yet remain on this point.

THE EXPERIMENT PROJECTED BY ARAGO TO DETERMINE THE VELOCITY OF
LIGHT. t

The velocity of light, diseovered and determined by the labors of which we
have just spoken, was entered as an established fact among the truths of sci-
ence. Turther researches could at most only lead to a oveater precision in its
determination, already approximated so closely by Bradley. The magnitude
of that velocity, so great that in one second it runs over more than seven and a
half times the circumference of the earth, would cause us to consider the
dimensions of the earth as far too small to serve as a basis for an experimental
determination of its value; the incomparably greater dimension of the earth’s
annual orbit was not more than sufficient to reveal to Roémer, from his obser
vations of the eclipses of Jupiter’s first satellite, that prodigious velocity, aie
we would naturally think that the measure of the velocity of light, which.
from its nature, really belongs to the province of experimental phy: sies, would
never depart from the domain of pleted Nevertheless, as we will soon
see, this recently did take place in the most brilliant manner

The first step in this direction was the most difficult to waned: and it required
all the daring of genius to attempt it. We find it in an experiment projected
by Arago, and communicated to the Academy of Sciences of Paris during its
mecting on the 3d of December, 1838. In the project it was not as yet pro-
posed to measure the velocity of light, but simply to compare the velocities
with which light moves in air, or in a liquid such as water, or bisulphide of
carbon; it was proposed to find by experiment which of these two velocities
was the greater, which would decide in an irrefutable manner st tae the two

systems imagined by physicists to explain optical phenomena, viz: the system

.

* The observation ol the transit of the planet Venus across the disk of the sun is by far the
most precise means that we can employ to determine the value of the parallax of the sun.

t Before proceeding further in the perusal of the essay of M. Delaunay, it is necessary
that all who have not given especial attention to the study of recent optical research, and
who desire to appreciate the beauty and importance of the remainder of this essay, should
understand wlty light should move faster in water than in air according to the emission
theory, and slower in water than in air according to the undulatory theory. This is not
explained by the author, and without this knowl ledge it is impossible to appreciate the
excellence of these classical experiments of Arago, of b'izeau, and of Foucault.

We would advise the above class of readers to study the points here spoken of in the
‘*Lectures on the Undulating Theory of Light,” by Professor Barnard, Smithsonian R eport
for 1862. in the admirable *Traité de Paysique, "by Dacuin, Paris, 1862, and in Pouillet’s
‘*Traite de Physique,” will be found detailed accounts of the apparatus mentioned in this
essay, illustrated with engravings. The original memoirs in the transactions of the Academy
of Sciences of Paris shou!d also be consulied.— Tr.

150 ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT.

cf emission and that of vibration or undulation. We cannot do better than
here allow Arago to speak for himself. ‘The following is what he says in the
notice printed in the proceedings of the mecting :*

‘*T propose to show in this communication how it is possible to decide, unequivocally,
whether light be composed of little particles emanating trom radiating bodies, as Newton
supposes, and as the greater part of modern geometers admit; or whether it is simply the
result of the undulations of a very rare and very elastic medium which physicists have
agreed to call ether. The system of experiments which I am about to describe will no
longer permit, it seems to me, to hesitate between these two rival theories. It will decide
mathematically, (L use designedly this expression ;) it will decide mathematically cne of the
grandest and most debated questions of natural philosophy.

‘‘ Besides, my communication is the fuifilling of a sort of engagement to the Academy I
accepted at one of its last secret sittings. piel omelet

“fT discussed the admirable method, by the aid of which Mr. Wheatstone attempted the
solution of the problem of the velocity of electricity over metallic conductors. I had hardly
terminated the enumeration of the important results obtained by that ingenious physicist,
when several of our members, whose names are authority in such matters, stated that my
report was far too approbative. ‘In supposing it well determined, the inferior limit assigned
by Mr. Wheatstone to the velocity of electricity will not have,’ said one, ‘any marked
influence on the progress of the sciences; besides, limits of the same order, and even more
extensive, can be deduced indirectly from various electric or magnetic phenomena, As to
che method of the revolving mirrors, it does not seem to be susceptible of application, but to
the simple questions already studied by the inventor.’ I tried to refute this last opinion. I
believed myself that the new instrument, suitably modified, would lead to results that Mr.
Wheatstone was not aware of. I already foresaw that, even in supposing it enclosed in
the narrow limits of a small room, it could serve to measure the comparative velocities of
light moving through air and through a liquid. I was not slow in learning, and without
hhaving hardly the right to be astonished or to complain that my assertion had been received
with incredulity. Nevertheless, I intend to vindicate it to-day in all its parts.

‘‘Principle of the method: Let a ray of light fall upon a plane polished mirror; it will
be reflected, as every one knows, in forming with the surface of the mirror an angle of
reflection exactly equal to the angle of incidence.

‘*Let us now suppose that the mirror turns through an are @ around the point of its
surface from which the reflection takes place. If this motion, for example, increases by the
quantity a, the original angle of incidence, it will diminish as much the original angle of
reflection. The latter will, therefore, after the displacement of the mirror, be smaller than
the first by the quantity 2a; thus it must be increased 2a to render it equal to the new angle
of incidence; hence that angle increased 2a will give the direction of the reflected ray in the
second position or the mirror; and thus the incident ray remaining the same, an angular
motion @ of the mirror occasions a double angular motion in the reflected ray.

‘This mode of reasoning applies as well to the case where the motion of the mirror,
acting in a contrary direction, would diminish the first angle of incidence. The principle
is, therefore, general; and it is also that of all reflecting nautical instruments.

‘The redection from the plane mirrors can serve to project the luminous rays in all parts of
space, without, however, altering the relative positions; two rays parallel before reflection
will be parallel after their reflection; those at first inclined to cach other 1 minute, 10
minutes, or 20 minutes, &c., will form precisely the same angle after the reflection has
deviated them. ‘

‘‘ Instead of a single ray, let us consider two horizontal rays setting out from two neigh-
boring points situate in the same vertical. Admit that they strike on two points of the
median line (also vertical) of a plane vertical mirror. Suppose that this mirror revolves on
itself uniformly and in a continuous manner around a vertical axis whose prolongation
coincides with the median line just mentioned, the direction in which the twe horizontal
lines will be reflected will depeud evidently upon the moment they may reach the mirror,
since we have supposed that it turns. If the two rays have set out simultancously from the
two contiguous radiating points, they will also reach simultaneously the mirror. ‘Their
reflection will take place at the same instant; consequently in the same position of the
turning surface; consequentiy as if that surface was stationary with respect to them.
Therefore their primitive paraliclism will not be changed.

“Tn order that the rays which primitively were parallel may diverge after their reflection,
it is necessary that one of them should arrive at the mirror later than the other. It is
necessary that in its course from the radiating point to the reflecting and turning surface,
the velocity of the ray should be accelerated, or what will be precisely the same thing, it is
necessary (the velocity of the tirst ray remaining constant) that that of the second should
experience a diminution. It is necessary, finally, that the two rays should be reflected one
after the other; and, consequently, from two distinct positions of the muror. forming with
each other a sensible angle.

* Comptes Rendus des Séances de l’Académie des Sciences. t. vii, p-. 94.

~

ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT. 151

** According to the theory of emission, light moves in water notably faster than in air.
According to the wave theory, it is precisely the opposite which takes place: the light
moves faster in air than in water. Suppose that one of the rays (the upper ray, for example)
has to traverse a tube filled with water before it strikes the mirror. If the theory of emission
be true, the wpper ray will be accelerated in its progress; it will reach the mirror first; it
will be reflected before the lower ray; it will make with it a certain angle, and the direction
of the deviation will be such that the lower ray will appear in advance of the other, that it
will appear to have been deviated more by the turning mirror.

‘‘Circumstances remaining the same, let us admit fora moment the truth of the wave
system. The tube of water will retard the progress of the upper ray; the ray will arrive at
the reflecting mirror after the lower ray; it will be reflected not the first, as in the former
case, but the second in order, and from a position of the polished reflecting face in advance
of the position it had when it reflected the upper ray a moment before; these two rays will
make with each other the same angie as in the other hypothesis, except (and we should well
remark it) the deviation will take place precisely in an opposite direction; the upper ray
will now be in advance, always indicating thus the direction in which the mirror revolves.

“To recapitulate: two radiating points, placed near each other on the same vertical line,
flash instantaneously before a revolving mirror. The rays from the upper point cannot reach
the mirror until atier traversing a tube filled with water; the rays from the second point
arrive at the mirror without meeting in their course any other medium than the air. ‘lo be
more definite, we will suppose that the mirror, seen from the position the observer occupies,
turns from the right to the left. Well, if the theory of emission be true; if light be material,
the upper point will appear to the left of the lower point. It will appear to tis right, on the
contrary, ii light results from the vibrations of an ethereal medium. ~

*‘Instead of two isolated radiating points, suppose that we instantaneously present to the
mirror a vertical lunrinous line. The image of the upper part of this line-will be formed by
rays which have traversed the water; the image of the lower part will result from the rays
which have throughout their whole course traversed the air. In the reyolving mirror the
image of the singie line will appear broken; it will be composed of two vertical luminous
lines, of two lines, which will not be prelongations of each other.

‘‘ The upper rectilinear image, is it behind the one below! Does it appear to its left?

““ Light is « body.

*“* Does the contrary take place? The upper image, does it show itself to the right?

“Light ts an undulation.

** All that precedes is theoretically, or rather speculatively exact. Now, (and here is the
delicate point, ) it remains to prove that, notwithstanding the prodigious velocity of light,
that notwithstanding a velocity of 190,000 miles a second, that notwithstanding the small
length that we will be obliged to give to the tube filled with liquid, that notwithstanding the
limited velocities of rotation that the mirrors will have, the comparative deviations of the
two images, towards the right or towards the left, of which I have demonstrated the exist-
ence, will be perceptible in our instruments.”

Arago then enters into the most minute details of all the parts of the experi-
ment: the velocity of rotation that can be given to a mirror, the visibility of
the image formed by light after having traversed the necessary length of liquid,
the possibility of reducing that length of liquid, or the velocity of rotation of
the mirror by employing simultaneously several rotating mirrors from which
the light would be successively reflected, and also in substituting for water
bisulphide of carbon, which acts more powerfully on the velocity of the light,
are, on his part, the objects of a thorough examination. He then terminates
thus:

‘* Suppose in the experiment that I propose to execute we make use of electric sparks, or
of lights successively screened and unscreened by the use of rotating disks, as their emis-

sions should only last during a tew thousandths of a second, it may happen that an observer,

looking in the mirror from a given direction, and with a telescope of limited field, will only
by chance perceive the light. To this I immediately reply that in renewing very often the
apparitions of light—every second, for example—that if, instead of a single mirror, we rotate
a vertical prism of eight or of ten facets, that with the concurrence of several observers,
placed in different directions, and each with his telescope, we cannot fail to have numerous
and clear apparitions of the reflected rays. But these are details on which I shall not dweli
to-day. I will reserve for another communication the exposition of the system of experi-
ments in which we will render sensible, and in which we will measure, to a certain degree,
the absolute velocity of light without having recourse to celestial phenomena.”

After the publication of’ this remarkable notice we could not doubt the suc-

cess of the experiment it detailed. But, not to interrupt the chronological order,
we should speak first of an entircly different experiment, by which the direct

152 ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT.

measure of the velocity of light was first accomplished on the surface of the
earth.
MEASURE OF THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT, BY M. FIZEAU,.

If we refer to the first pages of this essay we will there see indicated a very
simple means that was first mentioned as suitable for the determination of the
velocity of light, a method which would certainly have long ago furnished the
value of that velocity if the transmission of light in space was not effected
with such amazing velocity. Itis this method, barely modified, that M. Fizeau
has put into practice, and which he has rendered completely successful by
employing a process as simple as ingenious for measuring the excessively short
time that the light takes in running over a distance of several kilometres, or a
few miles.

We have supposed that two lamps, A and B, were placed at a distance of
several kilometres from each other, and that we shut off suddenly the light of
A by means of a screen, then the very instant that the disappearance of the
light of the lamp A was perceived at B, we screened B likewise, the interval
of time which elapsed between the instant that the lamp A was screened and
that when the disappearance of the light of lamp B was perceived at A is
evidently the time employed by the light to run over twice the distance which
separates the lamps. M. Fizeau replaced the lamp B by a mirror destined to
receive and to reflect perpendicularly to its surface the light of the other lamp.
In this manner the observer stationed near the lamp <A, and looking at the
mirror just spoken of, ought to see the image of the lamp A; if this lamp is
suddenly screened he should see its image disappear in the mirror, not imme-
diately, but after a certain interval of time—that which the light takes to run
over double the distance of the lamp from the mirror.

To measure the interval of time spoken of M. Fizeau made use of a disk
toothed at its circumference like a cog-wheel, so that this disk presented on its
periphery a succession of equal intervals alternately open and closed. If we
rapidly turn such a disk in its plane and around its centre, the closed and
open spaces formed by the cogs and the intervening openings will pass suc-
cessively before the same point in space, and the time employed by each tooth
or by each opening to come to the place previously occupied by a tooth or by
an opening can easily be reduced to a very small fraction of a second. In
placing the apparatus so that the teeth of the turning disk pass in succession
before the light of the lamp near the observer, these teeth will act like screens —
which periodically intercept the light. If the time employed by each opening
to come to the place occupied by the next preceding cog or tooth is precisely
that required by the light to go from the lamp to the mirror and from the mir-
ror back again to the lamp, the observer, stationed quite near to this lamp and
looking through the openings of the turning disk as they pass before his eye,
ought to see through each epening the extinction of light caused by the
passage of the preceding tooth before the lamp. This eclipse of the lamp,
produced during the whole time of the passage of the tooth before its light, is
perceived by the observer during the whole time of the transit of the following
opening ; and as the light of the lamp wheu it passes through an opening of
the disk, after its reflection from the mirror, meets the tooth which is now in
the place of this opening, it follows that the observer does not perceive at all
the image of the lamp in the mirror during all the time that the disk revolves
with the special velocity with which we have supposed it endowed.

After what has just been said it is easily understood what will happen when,
the apparatus adjusted, we commence by giving to the disk a gradually in-
creasing velocity of rotation. The disk first turning with an extreme slowness,
the observer, who has his eye quite near the side of the lamp and who looks
in the direction of the mirror, sees the teeth and the openings of the disk sue,

ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT. 153

cessively pass before him; when an opening passes, the light of the lamp
passes through, falls on the mirror, and comes back to the eye in passing
through the same opening which has hardly been displaced during its passage ;
soon a tooth presents itself, the light of the lamp is intercepted, and the eye
sees nothing more; a new opening follows the tooth, and the eye receives the
light reflected from the mirror, and so on continuously ; the eye, therefore, re-
eeives the light in an interrupted manner, with a series of extinctions caused
by the passage of the teeth of the disk. If we increase the velocity of rota-
tion of the disk these successive apparitions of the light are brought nearer
and nearer to each other, and as the impression caused by the light on the
retina lasts some time, about the tenth of a second, after the light has ceased
to penetrate the eye, when the velocity of the disk is so great that each tooth
takes less than one-tenth of a second to pass before the eye, the sensation pro-
duced by the light which has passed an opening has not yet vanished when
the following opening arrives and renews it; therefore there is no interruption
in the sensation, and the eye sees the light of the lamp reflected from the mir-
ror without any intermission; only the intensity of that permanent light which
it perceives is notably weaker than it would be if the teeth of the disk did not
pass before the lamp, since the half of the light which it emits in the direction
of the mirror is intercepted by the teeth which pass successively before it.
When this continuity in the light is obtained by a sufficient velocity of the
disk, we are yet far from the particular condition indicated above as giving the
experiment which can serve to determine the velocity of light; the light which
passes from the lamp through an opening of the disk can be reflected from the
mirror almost without loss, and return to strike the eye after having passed the
same opening; the last portion of this light, that which is emitted when the
following tooth is on the point of passing before the eye, can alone be inter-
cepted by this tooth when they return from the mirror to the eye. If we still
continue gradually to increase the velocity of the disk, these last portions of
the total light emitted through an opening which are intercepted in their return
by the following tooth, increase little by little in importance relatively to that
total quantity of light, and in consequence the intensity of the light received
by the eye gradually decreases. Finally, when the velocity of the disk has
so increased that the time employed by its circumference to progress a distance
equal to the breadth of an opening or of a tooth equals the time the light
employs to go from the lamp to the mirror and back again to the lamp, the cye
perceives nothing at all. The light sent by the lamp in the direction of the
mirror is completely intercepted by the teeth of the disk, as follows: half by
the anterior faces of these teeth as they pass before the lamp, and the other
half by the posterior faces of these same teeth after the light, having traversed
the openings, is reflected back by the mirror. If we increase yet more the
velocity of rotation of the disk, each tooth passes too rapidly to intercept the
whole of the returning light which passed through the preceding opening and
was sent back by the mirror; a portion of that light can therefore pass through
the opening which follows that tovth and strike the eye, which begins again
to perceive feebly the image of the lamp in the mirror. 'The velocity of the
disk still increasing, the intensity of the image increases also until the disk
turns twice as rapidly as it did the moment the eye perceived no light. Now,
in fact, all the light which has passed through an opening meets on its return
from the mirror the following opening which has taken the position of the first,
and it can enter the eye without the disk intercepting the smallest portion. It
is easy to sce that, by still adding to the velocity of the disk, the image of the
lamp, seen by reflection in the mirror, again commences to become faint, again
to be totally eclipsed, to reappear again, and so on as far as it is possible to
give increased velocities to the disk. If we observe with care the instant when
the first of these successive eclipses is completely produced, and if we then

154 ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT.

measure the velocity of rotation of the disk, we can easily calculate the time
required by a tooth to take the same position as was just before occupied by.
the next preceding opening ; and, as this time is precisely that employed by
the light to run over twice the distance of the mirror from the lamp, it is easy
thence to deduce the value of the velocity of light. Such is, in principle, the
mode of arrangement of the apparatus of M. Fizeau. We will now give such
an account of the details as will convey a clear idea of this apparatus.

In the explanation which precedes, we have supposed that the cye of the
observer is placed very near the lamp and looks in the direction in which the
lamp sends its light to the mirror, so that the incident ray, setting out from the
lamp, and the reflected ray, coming back from the mirror, to strike the eye, follow
one and the same path. Such conditions seem very difficult to obtain; but all
difficulty disappears by using a transparent glass plate, which, being inclined
45 degrees on the direction of the luminous rays, reflects to a right angle a
part of these rays from its surface, whilst the remaining portion traverses it:
without change of direction. Such a glass plate being placed before the eye,
with an inclination of 45 degrees on the line drawn from the eye to the mirror,
the lamp can be placed laterally, so as to send its light on the glass perpen-
dicularly to that line; the glass reflects towards the mirror a portion of the
light it thus receives from the lamp; that light, after being reflected, returns
to the glass plate, part of which passes through it to reach the eye.

Rays of light which emanate from a luminous source diverge to all points
around their place of origin; it follows that the further a given surface is from
the source of light, the less it must receive. If we therefore do not adopt some
particular means in the experiment we are engaged in, the mirror, placed at
several kilometres from the lamp, will receive only an insignificant quantity of
light ; moreover, only a very small part of that light will come back to strike
on the eye, so that we would really perceive nothing. In order that the light
may not thus be lost in surrounding space by the divergence of its rays, we
employ converging lenses placed one near the source of light and the other
near the mirror. ‘These lenses are so disposed that the rays radiating from
the lamp, after having traversed the first lens, become parallel and form a
beam which falls without loss upon the second lens; after having passed
through the second lens and converged towards its focus, where is placed the
mirror, they are reflected, come back to the lens, which renders them anew
parallel for their return to the point of departure; then they pass through the
first lens, which causes them again to converge, and finally they are viewed
by the eye aided with an ocular. In fact, the two converging lenses of which
we speak are objectives of two telescopes placed at the two extremities of the
distance over which the light travels, and directed towards each other so that
the image formed by the objective of the one is seen at the focus of the other.
It is in the interior of the first telescope, between the focus and the oceular,
that is placed the transparent glass plate inclined 45 degrees, of which we
spoke above, to receive and to reflect along the axis of the telescope the light
of a lamp placed on the side. As to the mirror which sends back the light
to its point of departure, we place it exactly at the focus of the second tele-
scope. M. Fizcau, in his notice read before the Academy of Sciences, (meeting
of July 23, 1849,) says:

“This arrangement succeeds very well, even when the telescopes are separated by con-
siderable distances. With telescopes of 6 centimetres (234; inches) aperture, the distance can
be 8 kilometres (nearly 5 miles) without the light becoming too feeble. We thus see a
duminous point like a star, and formed by the light, which, setting out from this point, has
traversed a distance of 16 kilometres, (nearly 10 miles,) then returned and passed exactly
through the same point to reach the eye. °

“It is exactly at this point that the teeth of the revolving disk must pass to produce the

effects spoken of. ‘The experiment succeeds very well, and we observe that, according to the
greater or less velocity of rotation, the luminous point shines brilliantly or is totally eclipsed.

ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT. 155

In the circumstances in which the experiment was made, the first eclipse was produced in
about twelve turns and siz-tenths of a turn in one second. With double the velocity the star
shines again; with a triple velocity a second eclipse takes place: for a quadrupie velocity

the point shines again, and so on.
‘The first telescope was placed on the terrace of a house at Suresnes, near Paris; the

second on the heights of Montmartre, at an approximate distance of 8,633 metres, (28,516

feet, or 5.3645 miles.)
“The.disk, carrying 720 teeth, was attached to wheel-work moved by weights, and con-
structed by M. Froment; a register gave the number of revolutions. The light was obtained

from a lamp so disposed as to give a very bright beam.”

M. Fizeau, by repeating several times his experiment, found for the velocity
of light a value which differed but little from that previously deduced from
astronomical phenomena; the mean of twenty-eight observations gave him a
velocity of 70,948 leagues of 25 to the degree, or of about 315,000 kilometres
(195,741 miles) in one second of time.

The publication of this magnificent experiment was an event in science.
The project developed by Arago before the Academy, in 1838, had shown the
possibility of rendering appreciable the progressive transmission of light in
space»and demonstrated that it would have to run over but a very short dis-
tance on the earth’s surface to determine thus its velocity. The experiment
of M. Fizeau, formed on an entirely different plan, realized for the first time
so daring an idea, and furnished at the same time a determination of the ve-
locity of light, whose agreement with that which astronomers had arrived at
from sidereal observations was as satisfactory as one could desire for a first
attempt of the kind.*

REALIZATION OF THE EXPERIMENT OF ARAGO, ON ONE HAND BY M. FOUCAULT,
ON THE OTHER BY MM. FIZEAU AND BREGUET.

For nearly eleven years the proposed experiment of Arago had remained as
fo)

an ingenious suggestion when the labors of M. Fizeau awakened the interest

of the learned world in problems of this nature. Some months later (meeting
of April 29, 1850) Arago again requested for it the attention of the Academy.
After having referred to the object of the notice printed in the Comte Rendu,
of the meeting of December 3. 1838. he added:

‘*That communication established that, according to readily admitted hypotheses as to
the angular deviations susceptible of being observed in an ordinary telescope, it would not
be impossible to determine the comparative velocity of light in bisulphide of carbon and in
air, without having recourse to an extreme length of tube, or to a mirror, making more than
1,000 turns in a second.. But the mirror which M. Wheatstone used made only 800 turns in
the same interval of time.

“It was evident that in this method of observation, and for a given angular deviation, the
length of tube containing the liquid ought to be so much the shorter, as the movement of
rotation of the mirror is more rapid. This is the reason I propose to add to this deviating
motion of rotation, which cannot surpass certain limits, 2 cumbination of several revolving
mirrors.

‘“'The two rays (one having traversed the liquid, the other the air) strike the first mirror,
and form a certain angle; this angle is doubled when the rays fall upon a second mirror
turning in the same direction with the same velocity; the angle is tripled if these rays are
reflected from a third revolving mirror, and soon. We can thus, by the multiplication of
the revolving mirrors, arrive at the same result given by a single mirror turning with a
double, triple, &c., velocity of that which it is possible to obtain with the certainty of not
destroying the teeth of the wheel, or of overheating the axis,

‘* My triend, M. Bréguet, jr., undertook to accoiuplish this end by means of a mechanism,
in which the communication of motion was given by wheel-work. He executed a special
arrangement of cog-wheels, the invention of which is due to White. At one of the former
industrial exhibitions could be seen the system of these movements.

* Tt was for this experiment of Suresnes that the Institute of France awarded to M. Fizeau,
at its annual meeting of 1856, the triennial prize of thirty thousand francs, founded by the
Emperor for the work or the discovery which, in the opinion of the five academies of the Insti-
tute, has done most honor ard service to the country.

156 ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT.

‘Tn observing the image reflected by the mirror attached to the third piece of wheel-work,
the effects observed should be identical with those which should be given by a revolving
mirror making 3,000 turns per second. From this moment the success ef the projected
experiment was placed beyond doubt. It was only to be regretted that, by the three suc-
cessive reflections from three different mirrors, the light necessarily experienced a considera-
ble loss in intensity. Jt was, therefore, desirable to arrive at the result by a single reflection;
and it is to this that the expenments which I am going to relate seem to lead.

“Tn his investigations into the causes which prevented us revoiving a mirror more than
1,000 turns per second, M. Bréguet proposed to relieve the last axis of the weight of the
mirror with which it was charged, to turn the axis alone; and he succeeded, not without
surprise, in giving to this axis 8,000 turns per second. ‘The obstacle which prevented us
giving the same axis, when it carried the murror, a velocity greater than 1,0U0 tarns per

second appeared evident. It was, one would think, the resistance of the air. I myself.

thought of the existence of that cause, and all our though s were directed to the means of
revolving the mirror ina vacuum. We immediately constructed a metallic receiver destined
io hold the revolving apparatus. This receiver had several apertures, of which one was to
give entrance to the rays of light after having traversed the two columns of air and of liquid.
Before the others were to be the ebjectives of the telescopes, with which to observe the
rays reflected by the rotating mirror, the necessary communications were established by
means of stufling-boxes between the apparatus and the driving weight. A special tube put
the interior of the receiver in-communicaion with an air-pump.

‘All was arranged and placed upon a stone column in the meridian room of the observa-
tory. It only remained to make the observation. * 4 si et rs > * (The

murror, contradictimg all our anticipations, turned hardly any faster in the vacuum than in.

the air. This circumstance again showed the truth of the proverb, ‘‘ Le mieux est ’ennemi
du bien:” (Better is the enemy of good enough.) It was necessary to think of return-
ing to the first apparatus composed of three pieces of wheel-work and of three separate
mirrors, the apparatus which Lt had given up only to obtain a greater intensity in the
reflected ray.

“‘T was convinced of: the necessity of going back to the first method of experiment at the
time when my enteebled sight would not allow me to undertake it. My pretensions, there-
fore, ought to be limited to having proposed the problem, and of having given the certain
means of solving it. These means may, during its accomplishment, experience modifica-
tions, which will render them applicable, with more or less facility, without changing their
essential character.”

After some details, which it is useless to give here, Arago adds :

‘*As to myself, if I have delayed a long time the realization of that which I had announced
that has been owing in large part to the obligations which M. Bréguet, my collaborator, had
contracted with the government for the supply of electric telegraphs, and to the desire that I
had to operate, as I have already said, with a mirror making 8,0U0 turns per second.

‘* Probably, also, I may remain content with the thought that no one will execute, with-
out my authorization, an experiment founded on principles and methods of execution which
J have exposed to the world in their most minute details.

**M. Bessel, after my publication in the Compie fendu, announced to me that he had
thought of a modification of my apparatus composed of three successive pieces of wheel-
work, each carrying a mirror. He receives the image reflected by the first rotating mirror
not upon a second revolving mirror, but upon a fixed mirror, which sends the ray back to
the first mirror. After this second reflection, the rays fall again upon a fixed mirror, from
which they are reflected a third time to the turning mirror, &c. It is after the last reflection
from the single revolving mirror that M. Bessel proposes to measure the angular departure
of the ray. This method, more simple than the one i proposed, in so far as it required only
one piece of wheel-work, had the very grave inconvenience of diminishing much more the
light, since he had more reflections from the mirrors than in the other method. * * *

*“M. Silbermann, without knowledge of the prior communication of M. Bessel, made me
a proposition similar to that of the illustrious observer of Koenigsberg.

« * ¥ * ‘a * * a * * # *

‘Things were in this state when M. Fizeau determined by his so ingenious experiment
the velocity of light in the atmosphere. Thet experiment was not indicated in my memoir.
‘The author, therefore, had the right to make it without exposing himself to the slightest
reproach for want of due consideration of the rights of others.

“As to the experiment on the comparative velocity of light in a liquid and in air, the
author wrote to me: ‘I have not yet made any attempt in that direction, and I will not
occupy myself with it but on your formal invitation, ‘his loyal reserve could only add to
the esteem with which the character and the works of M. Fizeau had inspired me, and I
willingly authorized M. Bréguet to lend him one or several of my rotating mirrors.

‘““M. Foucault, whose inventive genius is well known to the Academy, came also to
inform me of the desire he had to submit to the test of experiment a modification which he
had devised in my apparatus, ,

ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT. 157

‘I can only, in the present condition of my sight, accompany with my good wishes the
experimenters who desire to follow my ideas, and to add a new proof in favor of the wave
system to that which I have deduced from a phenomenon of interierence teo well known to
physicists to need recalling here.”

The communication of Arago, of which we have here given the principal parts,
was hardly printed in the Compte Rendu, of the meeting of April 29, 1850,
when the Academy received, at the following meeting, (May 6.) two important
communications on this subject, one of M. Foucault, the other of MM. Fizeau
and Bréguet. M. Foucault announced that he had realized with entire success
the beautiful experiment projected by Arago ;* he made known at the same
time the modifications he had given to the mode of arrangement indicated by
the illustrious perpetual secretary of the Academy, a modification which had
allowed him to arrive at this important result, which gave entire evidence of
the truth of the theory of undulation as opposed to that of emission. MM.
Fizeau and Bréguet had not progressed so far; they announced to the Academy
that their apparatus was adjusted and ready to work, and also showed in what
this apparatus differed from the original arrangement of Arago. Finally, a
few weeks later, June 17, they returned to announce to the Academy that
they likewise on their part had made this remarkable experiment; the result,
agreeing with that of M. Foucault, was in favor of the theory: of undulation.

Two important modifications had been made by M. Foucault in the arrange-
ment of Arago’s apparatus. ‘The first of these changes had for its object to
render the realization of the experiment incomparably easier. It is remem-
bered that, in the experiment of Arago, the light had to set out, so to say,
instantaneously from two luminous points, or rather from a luminous line
shining only during an excessively short time; that one beam of that light,
after having travelled in the air, and the other beam in a liquid, were to fall
upon a mirror endowed with an excessively rapid movement of rotation; that,
finally, after being reflected from this turning mirror, they should arrive at the
eye of the observer, furnished for that purpose with a good telescope. The
direction of the ray could very easily be determined in advance, since it was
that of a line going from the source of light to the mirror; but it is not the
same with the direction of the reflected rays which depend essentially upon
the position occupied by the mirror at the instant the reflection takes place, and
as the motion of the mirror and the reflection of the luminous rays from its
surface are independent of cach other, it is only by chance that the mirror
would be found in such and such a position; the observer, therefore, cannot
know in what direction he should place his telescope in order to receive the
luminous rays after their reflection. To obviate that difficulty Arago supposed
thatthe observer, being stationed anywhere in the space the reflected rays
could reach, and having directed his telescope towards the revolving mirror,
would successively repeat a great number of times the instantaneous emission
of light towards the rotating mirror, so that the rays from each of these emis-
sions being reflected from the mirror when in different positions, theré necessa-
rily would be some which would fall upon the objective of the telescope and
thus reach the eye of the observer. It was therefore a fugitive phonomenon
which the revolving mirror projected at each instant into the surrounding
space, sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another, and which by chance,
from time to time, would strike the telescope of the observer. It was to mul-
tiply the chances of observation of this fugitive phenomenon that Arago, at
the end of his communication of 1838, spoke of substituting for the single
mirror a vertical prism of eight or ten facets, and to employ at the same time
several observers placed in different positions, and each provided with a

*See, at the end of this essay, the article published by M. Foucault, in the Journal des
Débats, of May 4, 1850.

158 ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT.

telescope. Instead of that, M. Foucault modified the instrument so that the
reflected rays which should reach the eye of the observer quitted the revolving
mirror in one direction, determined beforehand, so that the observer could sta-
tion himself so as to receive conveniently all the reflected rays without leaving
anything to chance. To accomplish this the light from the luminous object
fell upon the revolving mirror, not in an intermittent manner, but continuously,
so that it was reflected in all directions around its axis; in one of these direc-
tions the reflected light met a fixed mirror on which it fell perpendicularly,
and which caused it to return over its path in sending it again to the rotating
mirror; there it experienced a new reflection which sent it to the luminous
object whence it set out. It was, therefore, near that object that the observer
placed his eye to receive the reflected rays, rays which, for convenience, M.
Foucault turned to one side by means of a transparent plate of glass inclined
45 degrees, similar to that which M. Fizeau had employed in his experiment
of Suresnes. The following are the words of M. Foucault in describing his
apparatus :

‘*A direct ray of light, penetrating a square opening, meets, very near the aperture, a reti-
cule of eleven vertical wires of platinum to the millimetre, (.03937 of an inch ; ) thence it
passes towards an excellent achromatic lens of long focus, placed at a distance from the
reticule less than double the principal focal distance. The image of the reticule of greater
or less dimensions would be formed on the other side, but, after having traversed the lens,
the pencil, before its convergence at the focus, falls upon the surface of the revolving mirror,
and, animated with an angular motion double that of the mirror, it forms in space an image
of the vertical wires, which is disp'aced with great rapidity. During a small portion of its
revolution this image meets the sutace of a concave mirror, whose centre of curvature coin-
cides with the centre of figure and the axis of rotation of the revolving mirror, and, during
all the time it passes over its surface, the light which has concurred to form it retraces its
path and falls upon the reticule itself, producing there its image, equal to it insize. In order
to observe this image without shuiting out the original beam, we place obliquely to the beam
of light, near the reticule, between it and the object glass, a glass plate, and we observe with
a powerful ocular the image thrown to one side. * * * The mirror, in revolving, causes
this image to reappear at each revolution, and, if the velocity of the motion of rotation is
uniform, it remains immovable in space. For velocities which do not surpass thirty turns
per second, its successive apparitions are more or less distinct, but over thirty turns give a
persistence to the impressions on the eye, and the image appears absolutely fixed.

‘*It is easy to demonstrate that the mirror, in revolving with greater or less rapidity, will
displace this image in the direction of the motion of rotation. In fact, the light which passes
between the wires of the reticule does not return to the wires until it has received from the
revolving mirror two reflections, separated by the time it takes to run over double the path
from the revolving mirror to the concave mirror. But, if he mirror revolves very fast, this
time taken by the liglit to go and come back, even over the small length of 4 metres, (13.12
feet, ) cannot be regarded as inappreciable, and the mirror has had the time to change sen-
sibly its position, which is shown by the change of position in the image formed by the re-
turning beam. Rigorously speaking, this effect takes place as soon as the mirror turns, even
slowly ; but it cannot be observed until the mirror has acquired a certain velocity, and only
when we employ certain precautions in the experiment. All my efforts have tended to render
this deviation as apparent as possible.

**The principal obstacle to surmount is that, in so complicated a path, the light cannot
converge to the focus in a neat, clear image. ‘The deadening which the pencil experiences,
in being reflected twice from a turning mirror of small surface, necessarily destroys the nicety
of the image, and produces in its contour an unavoidable mistiness. It is for this reason that
we have chosen for source of light the equi-distant linear spaces between the wires of a very
fine net. Although the image obtained is never clear, yet it is presented under the form of a
system of white and black stripes, similar to colorless diffraction bands, each having a well-
defined maximum and a minimum of light. Like the wires of the net, these luminous or
obscure spaces are distant from each other one-cleventh of a millimetre, (a millimetre equals
-03937 of an inch, ) and if, to observe them, we place in the occular a micrometer divided into.
tenths of a millimetre, the two systems ef lines will operate, by their relative displacements,
as a vernier, and will permit us to measure in the image, with certainty, a displacement of
the one hundredth of a millimetre. :

‘After the known velocity of light, with an objective of 2 metres (6.56 feet) focus, and in
using the double path of 4 metres, (13.12 feet,) we find that we need not give to the mirror
an extreme velocity (six or eight hundred revolutions per second) in order to obtain displace-
ments of two and three-tenths of a millimetre. Fé = - S * ~

‘Such is the construction of the optical apparatus which has permitted me to show the
successive propagation of luminous rays. My first attempts succeeded in the air with a

ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT. 159°

mirror which made only twenty-five to thirty turns per second, the length of the double path:
being four metres.

‘* In order to make the experiment with water, we have only to place between the revolving
mirror and the concave mirror a column of this liquid, held between two parallel plates of
giass in a conical metallic tube, varnished inside with copal, so that the water would remain.
clear, to take the necessary precautions that the terminal plates are not strained in their frames,
and to obviate the inconvenience of the change of focus by the interposition of a liquid layer
of 3 metres (9.84 feet) thickness, having paral.el surfaces. Jn the end we succeeded in easily
obtaining, with the feeble and green ray which has traversed the water, an image as distinct
as that which is formed withou: the interposition of the liquid. Therefore it is required but
to turn the mirror and to measure with precision its velocity of rotation if we desire to deduce:
the absolute velocities in air and in water, or to operate simultaneously on these two media
if we wish to know only the character and difference of these velocities.”

The second modification introduced by M. Foucault, in the arrangement of
the apparatus Arago proposed to employ, was in reference to the means of giving:
to the revolving mirror an extremely rapid movement of rotation and of keep-
ing up this motion a sufficient length of time. In the apparatus of Arago, M.
Bréguet produced this movement of rotation by means of wheels with oblique
teeth revolving under the action of a weight. M. Foucault substituted the
direct action of steam, evolved at a certain pressure from a steam-boiler, on a.
little turbine fitted to the axis carrying the mirror. The much greater simpli-
city of this rotating mechanism offered very notable advantages in the execution:
of the experiments.

In his communication to the Academy, M. Foucault thus announced the re-
sults he had already obtained :

‘In confining myself to the determinations of the velocity (of the mirror) by the sound,
(produced by the action of the steam on the little turbine, ) as I have already proved by two
successive observations that the deviation of the image after the passage of the light through
the uir is less than after its passage through the water, I have also made another confirmatory
experiment, which consists in observing the image formed in part by the light which has
traversed the air, and in part by the light which has traversed the water. During low
velocities the stripes of the compound image were sensibly the continuations of cach other,
and, by the acceleration of the movement of rotation, the image is carried to one side, and the
stripes are broken at the boundary line, at the junction of the air image with the water image,
the stripes of the latter being in advance in the direction of the common deviation. Moreover.
in taking into account the lengths of air and water traversed, the deviations were seen to be-
proportional to the indices of refraction. ‘These results demonstrate a velocity of light less in
water than in air, and fully confirm, according to the views of Arago, the indications of the
theory of undulations.”

M. Fizeau, on his part, made to the Academy of Sciences, in the same meet-
ing of the 6th of May, the point to which he and M. Bréguet had arrived in
their attempts to attain the same result. We reproduce here his communication
in full, taken from the Compte rendu of the meeting:

‘*We have undertaken to realize the important experiment of which M. Arago spoke to:
the Academy at its last meeting, and which he is not able to undertake at this moment on
account of the feeble condition of his sight.

“The rotary apparatus of M. Bréguet carries a small mirror of 12 millimetres (.472 of an
inch) in diameter, to which can be given a velocity of nearly 2,000 turns per second, and
which easily makes 1,200 or 1,500 revolutions.

‘**The optical arrangement that we employ is founded on the return of the rays on them-
selyes, produced by means of a perpendicular reflection: this is the arrangement which I
described in a preceding work.

‘*The light emanating from a luminous image, formed at the focus of the telescope,
traverses the objective, meets the revolving mirror, and is reflected normally trom a fixed.
mirror; then comes back to the revolving mirror, traverses the object glass, and returns
finally to the focus.

‘Tbe phenomenon produced by the rotation consists in the deviation of the return-image,
which is a permanent image resulting from the very rapid succession af instantaneous super-
posed images; the deviation results from the angular movement made by the revolving
mirror, whilst the light runs over double the distance which separates it from the fixed
mirror. After having observed the deviations in air for distances which were varied, so as
to obtain the greatest intensity of light and the best definition possible, we arranged the-
experiment so as to observe simultaneously the corresponding deviations of water and of air..

160 ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGUT.

For equal lengths of the two media the ratio of the two deviations should be, after one or the
other of the theories of light, either $ or 3. “s

“But, instead of taking equal lengths, we can take them so that they will be for the
water and for the air in the ratio of 4 to 3. According to the theory of emission, these
lengths are equivalent, or are run over in equal times, and the deviations should be equal.
According to the theory of undulations, on the contrary, these lengths should be run over in
very different times, which are for water and for air in the ratio of 16 to 9, and the deviations

should be in the same ratio - ;

“We have, therefore, adopted for water a length of 3 metres, (9 feet 10.11 inches, ) and
for air a length of 2.25 metres, (7 feet 4.53 inches. )

‘« The experiment made simultaneously on the two media becomes a very delicate differen-
tial experiment, in which it is not necessary to know exactly the velocity of rotation of the
mirror. We have only to compare the simultaneous deviations of the two images.

‘The apparatus is entirely constructed, but the condition of the atmosphere has not yet
allowed us to make the observation, and these experiments require so intense a light that it
is not possible to substitute for the sun’s rays artificial light. If the sky had been cloudless
yesterday or to-day, we would have been able to have presented to-day the result to the
Academy. If our experiments are not yet accomplished, it is because we waited until M.
Arago should authorize us to engage in researches which belong to him.”

Six weeks later, as we have already said, MM. Fizeau and Bréguet announced
to the Academy (meeting of 17th June, 1850) the complete success of their
experiment. ‘They obtained very neat results; the phenomena observed were
altogether in accord with the theory of undulation, and evidently opposed to
the theory of emission.

Thus the beautiful experiment of Arago was doubly realized. That which
had specially facilitated the success of this experiment, and given a great pre-
cision to the observation of the phenomena produced, was the modification of
the original arrangement as indicated by Arago, a modification which had for
its object to replace the fugitive image observed only by chance in a given
direction, by a permanent image produced in a determinate place, where we
can observe it with precision and at our ease. M. Foucault rightly attached a
great importance to that modification, and in the communication to the Academy,
the Gth May, 1850, he claimed its invention in these terms:

‘This memoir has also for its ebject to fix the date of a series of applications of the new
method, which consists essentially a the observation of the fixed image of a moving unage.”

But we may see in the communication of M. Fizeau, which we are about to
reproduce, that, in the apparatus which he had devised with M. Bréguet for
the execution of the experiment, the same modification is found introduced.
We there read in fact :

‘“'The optical arrangement ~* if ‘i ti iy * -* is founded on the return
of the rays on themselnes, produced by means of a perpendicular reficction.”

And further on :

‘The phenomenon produced by the rotation consists in the deviation of the image in its
return, which is a@ permanent image resulting from the very rapid succession of instantaneous
superposed images.”

M. Fizeau even refers this modification to the arrangement he kad adopted in
his beautiful experiment of Suresnes, for in speaking of the return of the rays
on themselves, produced by means of a perpendicular reflection, he adds: “ This
is the arrangement which I have described in a preceding work.’* ‘The ecom-
munication of the notices of MM. Foucault and Fizeau, at the same academic
meeting, constitutes a simultaneous publication which does not allow the slightest
priority to be established between them on this subject; but M. Moucault took
care to assure that priority in publishing two days in advance, in a political
journal, the detailed description of his apparatus.* That which belongs essen-

* See, at the end of the essay, the article published by M. Foucault, in the Journal des
Débats of May 4, 1850,

ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT. 161

tially to M. Foucault is the substitution of the steam turbine in place of the
wheel-work employed by M. Bréguet to rapidly turn the mirrow, and that modi-
fication has also a great importance on account of the facility it gives to vary
the velocity of the mirror, to regulate it, and to maintain it at a uniform velocity
during as long a time as we wish.

MEASURE OF THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT, BY M. FOUCAULT.

The apparatus which served M. Foucault to determine that light moves faster
in air than in water was not devised solely for that comparative experiment;
its principal object was to furnish the absolute value of the velocity of light.
It was in this point of view that M. Foucault brought it forward in 1850, in
indicating in a precise manner the means which he proposed to employ in order
to arrive at a certain precision in that measure.

We have seen that in this apparatus the return of the rays upon themselves
gives place to the formation of a permanent image which is displaced trans-
versely by a quantity so much the greater as the revolving mirror turns more
rapidly. The measure of this displacement of the image can make known the
quantity the mirror has turned during the interval of two successive reflections
of light from its surface in going and in returning—that is to say, while the light
had run over twice the distance of the revolving mirror from the fixed mirror;
it is therefore sufficient to know exactly the velocity of rotation of the mirror
in order to deduce the time elapsed between these two successive reflections—
that is to say, the time employed by the light to make double the journey from
the turning to the fixed mirror, and consequently the value of the velocity of
light.

"The following is the very ingenious method by which M. Foucault was
enavied to determine exactly this velocity of rotation, or rather so to adjust the
motion that the mirror can be made to turn with a velocity determined before-
hand.

A wheel-work mechanism gives a uniform movement of rotation to a disk,
toothed like a circular saw. ‘his disk makes exactly one turn in one second.
The teeth-which arm its contour, and which are accurately cut equidistant, are
to the number of 400; so that the time employed by one of these teeth to take
the place of the one which has preceded it is exactly the ;35th part of a second.
We so place the wheel that its border cuts the plane of the field of view of the
microscope with which we observe the return-image from the mirror. If this
field were continuously illuminated, the teeth of the disk would appear to pass
before the eye with the velocity of their motion; but itis not thus. The light
only comes to the field of the microscope at the instant a reflection takes place
from the revolving mirror ; this field, and consequently the border of the toothed
disk, are only illuminated by successive flashes of light, and those: flashes are
governed by the rotation of the mirror, which at each revolution sends rays
into the interior of the microscopes. If the mirror makes exactly 400 turns
per second, then the interval between two successive iluminations of the field
of the microscope is exactly equal to the time employed by each tooth to take
the place of that which preceded it; so that at the moment of the successive
illuntinations we always see a tooth of the disk in the same point of the field
of view: the disk appears absolutely immovable. Suppose now that the mir-
ror makes a little dess than 400 turns per second; whilst it makes a revolution,
each tooth of the disk goes a little further than it ought in order to take exactly
the place of the preceding tooth; at the moment of the successive illumina-
tions the teeth which replace cach other do not appear any longer exactly at
the same point in the field of view of the microscope; they appear little by little
in advance in the direction of the motion of the rotating disk, so that the disk
appears to have a slow movement of rotation in the direction of its real motion.

ll s

BGP? ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT.

If, on the contrary, the mirror makes alittle move than 400 turns per second, the
teeth of the disk at the moment they are illuminated appear more and more
behind a fixed position, and the disk seems to turn slowly in a direction the
reverse of its real motion. When we have so adjusted the velocity of rotation
of the mirror that the appearance of the border of the toothed disk which we
see in the field of microscopé appears immovable, we are certain that the mir-
ror makes exactly one turn while the circumference of the disk progresses one
division, and consequently whilst the mirror makes exactly 400 turns per second.
It was by adding this improvement or complement to his apparatus of 1850,
by substituting compressed air (evolved from the blowing-machine of constant
pressure of M. Cavaillé-Coll) for steam as the motive power of the little turbine
attached to the axis of the mirror, by increasing the length of the path of the
light between the two reflections from the revolving mirror from 4 to 20 metres
(from 13 feet 1.48 inches to 65 feet 7.4 inches) by means of successive reflec-
tions from intermediate fixed mirrors, by taking every possible precaution to
measure the displacement of a few tenths of a millimetre given by the revolving
mirror to the position of the image in its return, that M. Foucault, in September
1862, succeeded in determining with a certain precision the velocity of light in
air. He thus founda velocity of 298,000 kilometres (185,177 miles) per second,
a velocity a little below that of 308,000 kilometres, (191,391 miles,) which re-
sult from the value of aberration (20.45 seconds) deduced by M. Struve, from
very exact astronomical observations, combined with the value (8.57 seconds)
adopted up to this period for the parallax of the sun.

Let us recapitulate the series of labors which has led to so remarkable a
result :

Mr. Wheatstone (1834-’36) devised the use of a rapidly revolving mirror, to
render appreciable excessively small intervals of time.

Arago showed (1838) how, with the aid of such a revolving mirror, we would
be able to determine the difference of velocities with which light traverses air
and a liquid.

In the mean while M. Fizeau succeeded (1849) in being the first to render
evident the progressive transmission of light and to measure its velocity, by
means of an experiment made on the surface of the earth, in the space of a few
kilometres, and adopted an altogether different method from that proposed by
Arago.

An important modificatien, introduced (May, 1850) in the arrangement de-
vised by Arago, rendered incomparably easier the observation of the effect due
to the difference of velocity of light in air and in a liquid.

Owing to this modification the experiment of Arago was executed nearly at
the same time (May and June, 1850,) first by M. Foucault, and thea by MM.
FPizeau and Bréguet.

Finally, M. Foucault, perfecting his apparatus, measured (in 1862) the velocity
of light in operating entirely in the interior of a laboratory of moderate dimen-
sions.

An admirable experiment in physics, in which, by the power of intellect and
manual skill, we have succeeded not only in rendering sensible, but even
measurable, the time employed by light to rua overa path of 20 metres, (65 feet
7.4 inches ) although this time barely equals the psga/ogqgth of a second! and
which, if we repeat it so as to vary its elements, and thus make evident the
constant causes of error wh.ch affect the result, appears capable of giving a
determination of the velocity of light altogether as precise as that which is de-
duced from astronomical phenomena!

We would be unjust if we did not mention that the success of the experi-
ment of M. Foucault was greatly indebted to M. Froment, the able constructor
of the different parts of the apparatus. The clock-work which gave to the

ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT. 163

toothed disk a uniform motion of one revolution per second, and the revolving
mirror put in motion by the little air-turbine, or siréne, ought to take rank
among the numerous mechanical wonders which have proceeded from his hands.
The most ingenious conceptions remain unrealized if they do not find an artist
capable of execufing them. Thus history has taken the care to treasure the
memory of eminent mechanicians, to whom are due the delicate constructions
which have given important progress to science. ‘The name of the illustrious
Inglish clock-maker, Graham, remains forever associated with the discovery of
aberration and of nutation, made by Bradley, with an instrument constructed
by that artist; in the same manner the name of M. Froment will remain in-
separable from the beautiful and refined experiment of which we have just
spoken, and for which he executed the important and ingenious improvements
added by M. Foucault to the original apparatus devised by Arago.

Thus science is in possession of two methods, essentially different from each
other, to effect the measure of the velocity of light on the surface of the earth.

The first of these two methods, invented by M. Fizeau, was employed by
him in his memorable experiment of Suresnes; but although the number that
he thus obtained was very satisfactory from its close agreement with that
which is deduced from astronomical observations, still we should only regard
this experiment as having established the possibility of measwaing the velocity
of light by employing this method. As soon as the success of this method
was made known the Academy of Sciences, on the proposition of a commission
of which Arago was a member, determined to construct at its expense an appa-
ratus of large dimensions to turn the toothed disk destined to measure the
velocity of light by the method of M. Fizeau, in using every possible precau-
tion to give to that measure all the precision of which it was susceptible. The
apparatus ordered of M. Froment was finished, but its adjustment on the ter-
race of the Observatory was prevented; all the details of the observation to
be made between this terrace and a distant station, such as Mont-Valérien or
the tour of Montlhéry, had been studied; it was determined to employ tele-
scopes of large aperture, in order to increase the luminous intensity of the
observed image, and thus give all the desirable distinctness to the successive
eclipses occasioned by the increasing velocity of the disk; it was proposed
thus to produce twelve or more successive eclipses, &c., when the death of
Arago postponed the execution of this important operation. Let us hope that
the postponement will not be indefinite, and that the realization of an experi-
ment which promises such chances of great success will not be delayed.

The second method is that of M. Foucault, who has also obtained by its
means a value for the velocity of light which is not far removed from that
given by astronomical observation, and agreeing even still closer with it if we
adopt the increase which it seems we should give to the value of the parallax
of the sun. ‘This method, much more delicate than that of M. Fizeau, ap-
pears, on account of its very refinement, more exposed than the latter to the
influence of constant causes of error capable of falsifying the result. Let us
also hope that M. Foucault will not delay to complete his labors, by studying
the influence of these causes of error, so as to deduce a value for the velocity
of light the most precise that this method can furnish. The simultaneous use
of these two methods of measurement, whose results mutually control each
other, is not too much in order to determine with all the exactitude possible
the value of an element so important’as that of the velocity of the propagation
of light through space.

164 ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT.

ARTICLE PUBLISHED BY M. FOUCAULT, IN THE ‘‘ JOURNAL DES DEBATS,”
ON THE REALIZATION OF THE EXPERIMENT OF ARAGO.

[Number of Tuesday, April 30, 1850. ]

To THE Eprror—Sir: I will not wait for the expiration of the fortnight
to give you an account of what most occupied the Academy of Sciences during
their meeting of yesterday. All knew that M. Arago was to continue the
account of his beautiful researches of polarization and of photometry. The
attendance was large, and the Academy recorded at its session a foreign asso-
ciate and two corresponding members—Mr. David Brewster, Lord Brougham,
and M. de la Rive, of Geneva. But what was not expected was, that M. Arago
recalled attention to one of the most beautiful projected experiments that the
genius of a savant has ever produced, and he declared that, after having con-
ceived it, he had left to the young generation the care and the honor of per-
forming it. ‘T'his experiment has more than once occupied the attention of the
Academy; it proposes to decide, by means of a revolving mirror, whether
light moves faster in air than in water, and to seek, in the probable result of
this experiment, the confirmation of the theory at present adopted to explain
all optical phenomena. You may judge, sir, of the emotion with which I
heard this generous declaration; I, who for several days had in my hands the
experimental solution of this great problem! Nevertheless I thought it proper
to postpone to the next meeting the reading of the paper in which I have
recorded my results. In the mean time permit me, sir, to announce, in a few
words, the results which I have observed.

Light employs more time to run over the same path in water than in air, and
the time which it takes to traverse these two different media is shown by the
deviation of the ray which is reflected at a given moment from a mirror re-
volving with a great velocity. All things remaining equal, the deviations were
found to be proportional to the indices of refraction of air and of water. It is
not possible to entertain the least doubt as to the reality of these results; they
have been obtained by two different methods. The two deviations were first
observed successively and found unequal for the same velocity of the mirror.
They were then observed simultaneously, which cendered the observation still
more certain. ;

Permit me to limit myself to the rather technical expression of these new
results. When the columns of the Journal are unoccupied I shall enter into
such developments as will render these propositions more intelligible to your
readers.

Receive, sir, &e., &e.

LEON FOUCAULT.

[Number of Saturday, May 4, 1850.]

We published last Tuesday a letter of M. Foucault announcing the success
of an optical experiment originally devised by M. Arago, and which, in giving
the relative velocities of light in air and in water, accomplished the overthrow
of the emission theory in favor of the theory of undulation. The sun haying
appeared during the few days past, they have been able to repeat several times
the experiment in presence of a certain number of French and foreign savants,
and already the methods which have insured success are generally known to
the public. In waiting for the communication which will be given at the
meeting of the Academy next Monday, we will concisely indicate the funda-
mental parts of the experiment. ,

A beam of sunlight reflected from a heliostat in a fixed direction penctrates
horizontally a dark room; it first passes through a small opening of 2 milli-
metres (.0797 of an inch) square, then a,reticule extended behind this opening,

ESSAY ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT. 165

and formed of eleven platinum to the millimetre. Passing through this reticule,
the beam of light meets an objective of a focus of two metres placed at a dis-
tance from the reticule less than the double of its principal focal length, and it
tends to form beyond a magnified image of the reticule. But before the forma-
tion of this image the converging pencil is reflected from a small mirror which,
capable of rapidly revolving around a vertical axis, we will call the revolving
mirror. After its reflection, the converging beam will form an image before the
mirror at a distance of 4 metres, and when the mirror turns, this image moves
in space, describing circles double of the number of the turns of the mirror
supposed to-reflect from its two faces. In sweeping through space this image
meets a concave mirror whose centre of curvature corresponds with the centre
of figure of the revolving mirror and with the centre of the axis of rotation;
it thence results that during all the time that the image of the reticule falls on
the concave mirror the light is thrown back to its point of departure by the
revolving mirror and returns to form at the reticule its image of natural size.
This image coincides exactly with the reticule, when the revolving mirror being
at rest is placed at the proper angle of incidence; but as soon as it moves, the
image is deviated and deflected in the direction of the motion. In order conve-
niently to observe this deviation we place obliquely to the path of the entering
beam a glass plate which throws this image to one side. ‘This image appears like
colorless diffraction bands, striped with vertical lines, distant from each other
the eleventh of a millimetre; they are examined with a powerful ocular,
having at its focus a micrometer divided into tenths of a millimetre. ‘The
stripes of the image bear the relation to the divisions of the micrometer as a
scale to its vernier, so that deviations to the one-hundredth of a millimetre can
be read off. Calculation shows that a deviation should be observed for thirty
turns of the mirror in a second; and in fact it is seen for that velocity ; for
_greater velocities the deviation is measurable. If we wish to measure the
velocity of light in water we place between the revolving mirror and the con-
cave mirror a tube three metres long, filled with perfectly clear water, and its
ends closed by plates of glass of parallel surfaces. All things remaining the
same, the deviation observed when we interpose the tube of water is always
. greater than when this tube is not placed between the revolving and the con-
eave mirror. But it is better, to operate simultaneously in the air and in the
_ water, to employ two concave mirrors of the same radius of curvature and both
facing the revolving mirror; one destined to receive and send the rays through
the water, and the other through the air only. The mirror in revolving causes
the two images, corresponding to the two reflections, alternately to appear, but
the rapid succession of their apparitions makes them appear superposed ; to
distinguish them from each other we cover a good part of the height of the
concave mirror which reflects the image through the air, which reduces the light
of the brighter image; the remainder of the field is occupied by the image
which has traversed the water. The vertical stripes of these two images should
_ correspond, and indeed do correspond, for low velocities of the revolving mirror.
~ But as the velocity of rotation increases, the two rays are deflected unequally,
the stripes break at the line of junction, and the deviation is greater for the
' dull and green image which has traversed the water than for the luminous and
~ white image which has progressed only through the air. This last experiment,
although difficult to repeat with apparatus improvised in a hurry, has the ad-
“vantage to appeal directly to the eyes; it has been repeated before several dis-
“tinguished savants, who, in reference to it, no longer retain the least doubt.
‘lo give to the mirrors rapid and constant velocities M. Foucault uses a
“small steam-turbine, which was constructed with the greatest care by M. Iro-
_ ment. We cannot at present enter into the details of its construction. It wil)
_ be noticed hereafter, as well as the applications of this new method of expevri-
menting. when the paper in which it is described has been presented to the
Academy of Sciences.

OZONE AND ANTOZONE.

BY CHARLES M. WETHERILL, PH. D., M. D.

ScHOFNBEIN, in the year 1840, called attention to the existence of a substance
which he named from one of its most striking characteristics, ozone, (ofw, I
smell.) he peculiar odor in the neighborhood of a good electrical machine
when in action, and especially when the electricity issues from a point upon
the prime conductor, or is drawn from it as a spark, had been well known.
A similar odor had also been perceived accompanying thé fall of the thunderbolt.*
This phenomenon had been characterized as a phosphoric or a sulphur smell.

Schoenbein called attention to the fact that a similar smell is perceived during
the decomposition of water by the voltaic pile, and is observed accompanying
the oxygen which appears at the positive pole when the gases are collected
separately, and that it is also experienced in many chemical processes, espe-
cially in those involving a slow combustion. In explaining the odor of the
active electrical machine, it had been assumed that the sensation is due solely
to a peculiar action of the electricity upon the organs of smell, and not to the
presence of a material substance; but Schoeubein discovered, in the cases
alluded to, the existence of & body having the chemical properties of active
oxygen—that is, of this gas in its condition of entering most readily into chemi-
eal combination, to which he attributed the phenomenon in question, and to
which he assigned a characteristic name.

During.the twenty-five years which have elapsed since Schoenbein’s dis-
covery, this difficult subject has been investigated by many scientists, and
especially by Schoenbein himself, by Marignac, De la Rive, Fremy, Erdmann,
Berzelius, Williamson, Becquerel, Baumert, and others equally well known in
research. While there are few subjects which present a wider field for investi-
gation, or which are more important in their relations to a knowledge of animal
Jife, and to some interesting practical questions in technology, there are few which
require a greater patience, or a greater degree of skill in manipulation for their
research. It is in consequence of these difficulties that our knowledge of
ozone is so limited, notwithstanding the time and labor which have been be-
stowed upon it. It is the object of the present article to give a bricf sketch
of what is known respecting this substance, on the authority of the article ozone
in Poggendorff’s Dictionary, and from the essays of experimentors in various
scientitic periodicals.

Some time elapsed after its discovery before very definite views were held
as to the true nature of ozone. Schoenbein, who for a long time denied
that ozone is an allotropic form of oxygen, at first supposed that it was
a new body which, in union with oxygen, or perhaps with hydrogen, con-
stituted nitrogen, to which he attributed a compound character. De la Rive
imagined that the peculiar smell was due to the action upon the organ, of

* Homer notices the smell of the thunderbolt. Mohrin Pogs. Ann., xci, 625. Thus, in
the Odyssey, book xii, verse 417, and xiv, 307, Jupiter strikes a ship with a thunderbolt,
ev de Seevov TANTO, ‘* quite full of sulphurous odor”’ In the Iliad, viii, 135, Jove hurls a
bolt, ‘‘ with the flame of the burning sulphur,” into the ground before Diomede’s chariot.
In the same poem, xiv, 415, Ajax huris a rock at Heetor, who falls ‘‘jike a mountain oak
struck by lightning, which lies uprooted, and from which the fearful smell (odu7) of smoking
sulphur rises.”

0

OZONE AND ANTOZONE. 167

very finely divided metallic dust of platinum, or of gold, which was separated
from the conductors by the electric current, and converted into oxides of the
metals ; but Schoenbein proved this explanation to be untenable by the experi-
ment of employing hot points for the issuing of the electric charge into the air.
Under such circumstances the hypothetical separation of metallic particles and
their oxidation should be increased; but, upon the contrary, there was no
smell of ozone at all perceptible. Besides this, ozonized air, when shaken in
a bottle with water, does not lose its peculiar smell. Hence it is a gas, not
absorbable by water, but altered in its character by heat. Marignaec and De
la Rive subsequently performed experiments which seemed to show that ozone
is pure oxygen. As Marignac was unable to obtain ozone by electricity with
oxygen unless moisture was present, it was possible that the substance might
be peroxide of hydrogen, and this hypothesis became highly probable by the
extended and careful research upon this point by Dr. Williamson. This chem-
ist prepared ozone by the electrolysis of sulphate of copper, dried it by passage
over chloride of calcium, and passed it through a tube containing copper turn-
ings, heated to redness, which had been first oxidized and then reduced in a
current of carbonic oxide. By the experiment, oxide of copper and water
resulted. Schoenbein now adopted this hypothesis, having been fortified
by experiments of his own. At first he regarded ozone as a higher oxide
(HO;) than Thenard’s peroxide (HO2) of hydrogen; but at last retained the
latter formula. Schoenbein defended this view pertinaciously, supporting it
by experiments and by arguments against that of De la Rive, Marignac, Mar-
chand, Erdmann, Berzelius, Fremy, and Becquerel, who prepared ozone with
pure oxygen, (obtained from chlorate of potassa, the gas being washed and per-
fectly dried,) either by the electrical machine or by an induction current. Ma-
rignac, by acting with ozone upon pure powder of metallic silver, obtained
nothing but the peroxide of that metal. Hence the conclusion was warranted
that ozone is oxygen in an allotropic form. Schoenbein’s opinion was based
upon his view of the halogen bodies, which, like Berthollet, he believed to be
peroxides of unknown radicals, and from the analogy of ozone, in its chemical
behavior, to chlorine. He also assumed that no element is known which has
an action upon the olfactory nerves to call forth the sensation of smell; chlo-
rine, iodine, and bromine being, as he believes, compounds, while phosphorus
and arsenie act upon this sense by reason of their passage into the condition
of oxides.

Baumert contended that the odorous gas evolved by electrolytic action is
essentially different from ozone obtained by the electric spark. Its constitution,
according to this chemist, is HO3; it yields no water to anhydrous phosphoric acid
until it has first passed through a tube heated to redness, which he supposed
decomposes the HO;. Baumert, however, in subsequent experiments, acceded
to the opinion (derived from iheir investigations) of De la Rive, Erdmann,
Marignac, Marchand, Fremy, and Becquerel, that ozone is an allotropic condi-
tion of oxygen.

Schenbein, in 1858, discovered that if to diluted peroxide of hydrogen a
few drops of solution of acetate of lead be added, or that if ozonized oil of tur-
pentine be shaken with the same lead salt, peroxide of lead is formed. ‘The
same reaction takes place when ozonized oxygen acts upon basic acetate of lead.
When the peroxide of lead thus formed remains in contact with the peroxide

-of hydrogen, both are reduced; the result being water, protoxide of lead, and
oxygen. From this reaction, Schoenbein assumed that the oxygen in the perox-
ides of hydrogen and of lead exists in an opposite condition of polarity, thus:

+ —~
HOO and PbOO, and that by the union of these molecules of oxygen the ordi-
nary inactive oxygen results. Clausius and De la Rive also imagined a simi-
lar molecular condition for oxygen.

168 OZONE AND ANTOZONE.

Schoenbein designated those bodies containing negatively active oxygen,
(orO ), ozonides ; such are permanganic (Mn, 0, Os) and chromic acids (Cr2 03 Os),
and the peroxides of manganese, (Mn 0,0), silver, (Ag 0,0), and lead, (BR 0,0). )
He named antozonides ; peroxides of hydrogen, (HOO), barium, (Ba OO), and

+
all bodies which contain oxygen in a positively active condition, (O), and this
form of oxygen he called antozone.

+ i
This chemist succeeded in obtaining antozone (O) by projecting finely pow- .

ok

dered peroxide of barium (Ba OQ) into cold monohydrated sulphuric acid. A
gas is evolved which both Houzeau and Schoenbein formerly supposed to be
ozone, but which has different properties. It blues iodide of potassium starch
paper, and smells somewhat like ozone; but when agitated with a little water
it loses its odor completely, and forms peroxide of hydrogen, which reaction
ozone does not produce. <A slip of filter-paper saturated with a mixture of
dilute solution of ferricyanide of potassium and a persalt of iron is speedily
turned blue in antozone gas, but in ozone behaves as in atmospheric air. A
very small portion of the gas evolved by this reaction in antozone. ‘This is
due to the elevation of temperature, which transforms the antozone into ordi-
nary oxygen.

Another means of distinguishing ozone from antozone consists in a slip of
paper imbued with solution of sulphate of protoxide of manganese, which
speedily becomes brown in ozone, from the formation of peroxide of manga-
nese. In antozone, not only does this reaction not take place, but papers
browned by ozone are bleached by antozone.

A distinguishing test may also be found in the behavior of the two gases
with permaganie acid, which antozone decolorizes and ozone browns.

Dr. G. Meissner discovered that, if well dried electrified air be passed through
water, (which may or may not contain air,) it forms, upon issuing into the at-
mosphere, a more or less dense cloud or mist. ‘The same phenomenon takes place
when electrified air issues into a moist atmosphere.

This cloud is formed by the electrifying’ of either pure oxygen or of air; but
not by pure hydrogen, or nitrogen. It occurs, whether the gas contains ozone
or not, but in the latter case to a less degree.

By contact with drying substances, as concentrated sulphuric acid, chloride
of calcium, and even concentrated solutions of certain salts, the mist may be
caused to disappear; but it forms again by the addition of aqueous vapor.
The air left to itself gradually loses this mist-producing property, and if the
antozone cloud be confined, the water is, after a while, precipitated upon the
sides of the vessel, and can no more be produced by the action of vapor, unless
the air be electrified again.

Ozoniferous moist air retains its cloud-compelling property longer than that _
which does not contain ozone; and, on the-other hand, dry ozonized air pre-
serves this property still longer. Meissner satisfied himself, by numerous ex-
periments, that this phenomenon of mist is due to antozone, and that electrified
air contains both ozone and antozone, the former element being absorbed, and
the latter not absorbable by iodide of potassium, or pyrogallic acid. He dis-
covered, also, that antozone prepared by electricity is identical with that obtained
by the decomposition of peroxide of barium, as the former, when brought fresh
and dry in contact with water, generates a proportion of peroxide of hydrogen.
Meissner regards peroxide of hydrogen as a chemical compound of antozone
and water; but cloud or mist as a physical aggregate of antozone and vapor
of water, in which the chemical affinity of the two bodies is very much weak-
ened. Von Babo supposes the antozone cloud to be in most cases peroxide of

OZONE AND ANTOZONE. 169

hydrogen, and that it may be formed by the action of ozone also; its disap-
pearance he explains by the gradual precipitation, or decomposition of the
peroxide.

Meissner regards the formation of ozone and antozone possible simultane-
ously by the action of either positive or negative electricity upon ordinary
exygen; but Von Babo believes that only ozone is formed by the current. The
latter chemist found that ozonized air experienced no diminution of ozone upon
its passage through a solution of permanganic acid, but that this took place
immediately if the air came first in contact with substances capable of forming
peroxide of hydrogen; also, that ozonized oxygen, free from nitrogen, gen-
erated with water neither cloud nor peroxide of hydrogen.

According to Meissner, antozone is formed by all processes of oxidation and
combustion in oxygen; and, since the ozone enters chiefly, during combustion,
into the oxide thus generated, that the result is principally antozone (or peroxide
of hydrogen) in the free state. Antozone is, therefore, according to Meissner,
the cause of the cloud in tobacco smoke, the smoke of chimneys, of gunpowder,
fogs, and aerial clouds. Meissner found that the fumes of phosphorus in the
air are antozone clouds, and not nitrate of ammonia, the greater portion of the

zone generated by the reaction being absorbed by the phosphorus.

Meissner discovered that air saturated with moisture gives a cloud, upon sud-
den rarefaction, until the barometric pressure is reduced to eight inches. "This
corresponds to an elevation of 27,000 feet. By the observations of Kamtz, the
average altitude of the lightest and highest clouds, the cirrhi, is 20,000 feet,
and their greatest height 24,000 feet.

According to Meissner, water condensed from air or oxygen has the form of
vesicles, while, when it is separated from other gases, the moisture condenses
in the form of rain or solid drops.

A most curious occurrence of antozone presents itself in the fluor spar of
Wolsendorf, in Bavaria. This mineral has a peculiar smell, due to antozone,
which Schoenbein found in the proportion of =945 of the weight of the spar,
because five grammes, when rubbed with water, yielded 2.125 milligrammes of
peroxide of hydrogen. Since antozone is contained in powder-smoke, it may
be surmised that the copious rains which follow great battles are due, in a mca-
sure, to this body, the decomposition of the cloud of antozone-water being either
a cause or an effect of the electrical excitement in the atmosphere.

Having prepared antozone from an antozonide, Schoenbein sought to obtain
ozone from an ozonide, and selected permanganate of potassa for that purpose.
Bertazzi had already (Cimento ii, 291) shown that by the action of dilute
sulphuric acid, at a low temperature, upon this salt, a gas was generated which
had the properties of ozone. Schoenbein, upon a further investigation of the
subject, found that peroxide of barium projected into the olive-green solution of
permanganate of potassa, and oil of vitriol, of 1.85 specific gravity, evolves a gas
which has the smell and chemical properties of ozone. It acts strongly upon
the mucous membrane, polarizes platinum negatively with great power, and
destroys organic coloring matter and pyrogallic acid at the ordinary temperature.
R. Boettger, in calling attention to this experiment, states that he had two
years previously described the effect of oil of vitriol and permanganate of po-
tassa in producing a long-continued evolution of ozone. He considers the addi-
tion of peroxide of barium superfluous, and, for the development of ozone,
adds two parts of dry powdered permanganate of potassa to three of hydrate
of sulphuric acid in a bottle. By this reaction a strong ozone smell is at once
perceived, and all of the characters of the gas may be established by the proper
reagents.

Schoenbein has determined that antozone has a density less than hydrogen,
and that it liouefies at a pressure of 150 atmospheres. Ozone and antozone,

170 OZONE AND ANTOZONE.

exposed to the dark rays of the spectrum, unite, with explosion, and yield
ordinary oxygen.

Schoenbein considers that oxygen undergoes chemical polarization in the
body when respired, and accounts thus for the rapid changes which take place
in the tissues. He has found peroxide of hydrogen in the urine, and has dis-
covered that the blood corpuscules instantly decompose this compound. Ie
has given the following test for the peroxide of hydrogen. ‘To water, supposed
to contain the peroxide, he adds one or two drops of a solution of a salt of
bismuth, nickel, cobalt, thallium, &c., and then just enough of potassa to pre-
cipitate the hydrated oxide of the metal. He then adds a little iodide of po-
tassium and starch, and lastly one or two drops of acetic or dilute sulphuric
acid. If the merest trace of peroxide of hydrogen be present, the liquid is
instantly colored blue.

The following is Schoenbein’s method of determining quantitatively the de-
composition of oxygen into ozone and antozone. During the slow oxidation
of metals, according to this chemist, the oxygen is chemically polarized; one
of its atoms (ozone) unites with the metal or oxidizable matter, while the other
atom (antozone) combines with water to form peroxide of hydrogen. Schoen-
bein agitates an amalgam containing five per cent. of lead, with very dilute
sulphuric acid of known strength, in a large bottle partially filled with air or
oxygen. After a few moments of agitation, a quantity of sulphate of lead is
produced, and peroxide of hydrogen is found in the acidulated water. He
ascertains the oxygen which has combined with the lead, by determining the
amount of uncombined acid, thus calculating the sulphate of lead formed, and
consequently its oxygen. He determines the peroxide of hydrogen in another
portion of the water by a standard solution of permanganate of potassa, and
finds the quantity of oxygen in this peroxide to be very nearly the same as
that contained in the oxide of lead. ,

Different chemists have determined the diminution of volume experienced by
air or oxygen during ozonization.

Andrews and Tait placed pure dry oxygen ina tube and discharged elec-
tricity through the gas. With still discharges a diminution took place, which
was at first rapid and then slow until a maximum was reached, yielding a
diminution equal to 4, of the original volume. When, now, a few sparks were
passed through the gas it expauded 3 of the former diminution, but did not
attain its original volume. With rapid or spark discharges, oxygen experiences
a, diminution of volume, although less than by still discharges. Oxygen, con-
tracted by the formation of ozone, when left to itself at the ordinary tempera-
ture, expands again gradually. At 100° Centigrade it expands more rapidly,
and at 270° it regains its original volume and loses all of the characteristics of
ozone. At this temperature, therefore, ozone is destroyed. Andrews and
Tait found that, by still discharges, oxygen cannot lose more than +5 of its
volume, unless the ozone be removed as fast as it is generated, in which case
the diminution may proceed indefinitely. ‘They determined 60 for the density
of ozone compared with oxygen, which makes it six times lighter than lithium.
They were unable to condense it to a liquid at ordinary pressures by a freezing
mixture of solid carbonie acid and ether. ,

Ozone may be prepared for examination most readily by dropping, in small
quantities, dry permanganate of potassa in a bottle containing a little oil of
vitriol, or by placing a stick of phosphorus, scraped clean under Water, in
the bottom of a capacious vessel containing enough lukewarm water to half
submerge the phosphorus. In either of these cases a slip of iodide of potas-
sium starch-paper becomes instantly blue when immersed in the air of the ves-
sel, and the different ozone reactions may be readily perceived by employing
the appropriate tests. ‘The gas may also be investigated with the above starch-
paper in the neighborhood of a point upon the prime conductor of an elee-

OZONE AND ANTOZONE. 171

trical machine, from which still discharges are issuing. It may be obtained by
the inductive current of the Ruhmkorff coil, or by the electrolysis of water,
using a powerful Bunsen or Grove battery, and employing gold or platina for
the positive electrode, from which proceeds a current of oxygen, laden with
ozone. The hydrogen gas, issuing from the negative electrode, possesses no
odor of ozone, but this smell is perceived when the two gases are collected
together. The antozone, formed here by the polarization of the oxygen, unites
with the water to peroxide of hydrogen. If the water thus electrolized con-
tain substances capable of union with oxygen, as hydrochloric, hydriodic acids,
and their salts, also sulphurous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, coal, iron filings,
&ec., or if the liquid or electrodes be heated, no ozone smell is perceived.

There is no process for obtaining pure and isolated ozone, although a con-
stant current of air laden with this gas may be procured for a certain time by
the action of sulphuric acid upon permanganate of potassa, or by passing
moist air through a tube containing pure phosphorus, and washing the gas with
water. The generation of ozone by the electric discharge is so slow that Bau-
mert, by passing 500,000 sparks in an hour, obtained only enough of this gas
to liberate one milligramme of iodine from its potassium salt.

Circumstances influence the production of ozone by the electrical discharge.
Under the same conditions, sparks of 25 millimetres in length generate twice
as much ozone as sparks of 4 to 5 sa en long.

Employing poenencly sealed tubes of 5 : millimetres diameter and 70 mil-
limetres long, 2 of the oxygen can be ee into ozone; but by continuing
the discharges the ozone diminishes, so that in 24 hours it equals only 4 of the
original oxygen.

By the electrolysis of water, containing 7g of sulphuric acid, Baumert ob-
tained only one milligramme of ozone in 150 litres of the mixed gases; but
when the water contained chromic acid instead of sulphuric, he found the same
quantity of ozone in 10 litres of the mixed gases.

Ozone is generated by means of phosphorus only in a moist air, containing
oxygen ata medium temperature. When the atmosphere is deprived gradually
of its oxygen, by means of ignited oxide of copper, the production of ozone
diminishes, and ceases entirely when there is no longer any, oxygen present.

Ozone is not formed in pure carbonic acid or hydrogen gases. With
volume of oxygen and 4 of carbonic acid, the formation of ozone is easy. In
an explosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, the generation of ozone is pow-
erful; the phosphorus shines vividly, and can acquire heat sufficient to kindle
and explode the mixture of gases. In pure oxygen, at the ordinary pressure
of the atmosphere, phosphorus, by the presence of water, does not produce
ozone until the temperature is raised from 75.2° to 86° Fahrenheit. At this
temperature the phosphorus begins to emit light, and the illumination and
ozone generation are powerful at 96.8° Fahrenheit.

Oxygen expanded to four times its volume, by the air-pump, yields ozone, by
phosphorus, at the ordinary temperature; but at 32° Fahrenheit there is no
production of ozone. In dry air phosphorus generates ozone slowly, as the
phosphorus soon becomes coated, which prevents the action of the air. There
is a connexion between the shining of phosphorus and its generation of ozone,
so that this production exists iu proportion to the intensity of the illumination;
but we are ignoraut of the cause of this connexion.

If we well wash air ozonized by phosphorus and place in it a piece of car-
bonate of ammonia, so that the gas reacts alkaline, and wash the gas again, it
still vives all of the characteristic reactions of ozone.

According to Schoenbein’s experiments, 1,000 grammes of phosphorus are
capable of converting 1,720 of oxygen into ozoue. By another trial he gives
0.43 gramme as the yield of ozone by 1 gramme of phosphorus. By hanging

ts)
silver leaf in a vitriol carboy filled with ozonized air, he could deozonize the

EG. OZONE AND ANTOZONE.

same in four hours; and, by repeating the process for several weeks, he was
able to prepare as much as 20 grammes of the peroxide of silver. Ozone
results also from the slow oxidation of pure ether, effected by the means of a
platinum spiral heated to redness and placed in the vapor of the ether. Accord-
ing to Schoenbein the combustion of hydrogen, carbide of hydrogen, and of
kindred gases, produces ozone.

The odor of ozone is so powerful that air containing only one millionth of it
has a decided smell of the gas. Ozonized air raised to the temperature of
482° to 572° Fahrenheit, is deprived instantly of this body.

A very characteristic action of ozone consists in its polarizing effects upon
the metals, particularly upon platinum, gold, and, to a less extent, edpper. An
ozoniferous atmosphere behaves like one containing chlorine or bromine. If a
slip of gold or platinum is immersed in an ozone atmosphere, it acquires a mega-
tive polarity in a few seconds. When sucha slip is united with an ordinary
one and the pair is plunged in acidulated water, a current is generated which
acts powerfully upon the needle of the galvanometer. Antozone, also, polaxizes

platinum negatively, but less so than ozone.
Inthe preparation of ozone by phosphorus, an odor characterized as “ garlic”
is first perceived. Gold or platinum, immersed in such air, is polarized post-
tively, and this condition may remain for a considerable time if the tempera-
ture be low. Presently, with a temperature of 53.6° to 60.8° Fahrenheit, the
gas exchanges its “ garlic” for an ozone smell; and, at the same time, the metal,
after quickly passing Volta’s point of indifference, acquires a negative polarity.
The least moisture deposited upon the metal, also an elevated temperature, pre-
vent, or, if present, destroy this polarization. It is also lost in the air gradu-
ally, and immediately in hydrogen gas, which even communicates a positive

polarity.
-- Ozone is absorbed neither by water, caustic ammonia, nor baryta, sulphuric
acid, or dry chloride of calcium.

Schoenbein attributes many of the reactions of oxidation by the “ nascent
state’ of the gas to the presence of ozone.

Dr. Phipson has given many of such examples of polarization explanatory
of the “ status nasvens’ in a prize essay which is contained in the Smithsonian
Report for 1862.

A paper saturated with a solution of iodine is quickly bleached in an ozone
atmosphere; the product, however, does not react acid, and in contact with
oxidizable bodies, such as sulphurous acid, sulphide of hydrogen, phosphorus,
hydriodic acid, metals like zine and tin, or protoxides like those of tin or lead,
the paper becomes brown again from iodine.

Solutions of chlorine and bromine act in the same manner; and it is this
fact, together with the chemical analogies existing between ozone and the
halides, which led Schoenbein to assign to ozone a similar nature.

In the presence of strong bases, such as hydrates of lime or potassa, the
nitrogen of the air may be oxidized to nitre by the action of ozone. ‘Three
thousand litres of ozonized air, agitated with milk of lime, furnish 5 grammes
of saltpetre. Ozone liberates iodine from the iodide of potassium more freely
in the sun than in the daylight; but when starch is present, the blue iodide of
starch is bleached by the light. By renewed action of ozone it becomes blue
again, and the bleaching and bluing may be repeated until the iodide of potas-
sium is transformed completely into iodate of potassa; when ozone is no longer
capable of producing the blue tinge. According to Baumert, the first effect
of ozone upon this salt is the decomposition to caustic potassa and iodine,
which react to form iodate of potassa and iodide of potassium. ‘The. ozone
acts upon this iodide as before, until at length the halide is completely oxidized
to iodate of potassa.

The yellow prussiate of potassa is converted quickly into the red prussiate

OZONE AND ANTOZONE. © £33

by ozone. <A crystal of the former salt placed in an ozone atmosphere be-
comes gradually red, the color proceeding from the outside to the inside, and
the solution of ferrocyanide of potassium experiences this change very readily
when agitated with ozone.

The metals arsenic, antimony, iron, zine, tin, lead, bismuth, silver, and mer-
cury, are oxidized instantly by ozone, and deprive thereby any atmosphere con-
taining that gas.

The metals are not oxidized with equal facility. Thus arsenic is oxidized
much more readily than antimony, which affords an additional means of dis-
tinguishing between these bodies in judicial inquiries. An arsenic spot ina
strong ozone atmosphere is converted instantly to arsenic acid, while an anti-
mony mirror requires several days for its disappearance. Dry mercury, or that
covered with water, does not absorb ozone; if the metal be merely moistened,
it takes up ozone readily, becoming yellowish upon the surface.

Silver, in the state of leaf or sponge, absorbs ozone quickly, as has been
stated already. This metal may be employed for separating ozone from ordi-
nary oxygen.

The more readily oxidized metals, as protoxides of manganese, iron, tin, &c.,
as well as those which, like protoxides of silver and lead, are not so easily
changed to a higher state of oxidation, are peroxidized by ozone.

A solution of the sulphate of the protoxide of manganese is browned in-
stantly in ozone from the above cause, and, according to Schoenbein, this reac-
tion is perceptible in a dilute solution of sulphate of zinc, which contains as
an impurity only ;,5,5 of manganese. If hydrated oxide of lead be spread
upon paper, or if basic acetate of lead be employed, ozone will communicate
to the paper first a yellow, then a red, and finally a brown coloration from the
peroxidation. .

If the lead paper be blackened by means of sulphide of hydrogen, it may
be bleached in ozone, which is due to the production of the white sulphate of
lead.

Organic bodies are very readily oxidixed in ozone, as shown by the experi-
ments of Schoenbein, Baumert, Gorup von Besanez, &c. Thus wood, straw,
cork, starch, humus, vegetable colors, caoutchouc—pure and vulcanized—the
fats and fatty acids, alcohol, albumen, blood, &c., have been found to be all
acted upon by this agent. Ozone bleaches litmus without first reddening it.
Certain fungi become blue in:the air, and the cut surface of an apple becomes
brown by the action of ozone.

Gum guiacum, which becomes gradually blue in the air, owes this change to
ozone, as was first shown by Schoenbein, who employed this substance as a
reagent for ozone. ‘To prepare guiacum papers, one part of the gum is dis-
solved in thirty parts of 90 per cent. alcohol. One gramme of ordinary alco-
hol is charged with a few drops of this solution, and the paper slips are dipped
therein and dried. ‘he papers are blued rapidly in an ozone atmosphere.
‘They lose this color when exposed to the air, but regain it in ozone, and the
process may be repeated until the guiacum is fully oxidized. Certain metals
and other bodies, especially nitrous acid, chlorine, bromine, peroxides of man-
ganese, and lead, &c., will blue guiacum tincture.

The following is Schoenbein’s method of determining ozone quantitatively
in a mixture from its bleaching effect upon the solution of indigo: The ordi-
nary solution is diluted with sufficient water to be just opaque blue. One hun-
dred grammes of this solution receive an equal weight of hydrochloric acid,
and are then boiled. The heated liquid is treated with a solution containing
xia of chlorate of potassa until the blue color is exchanged for a brownish
yellow. If, now, for the destruction of the 100 grammes of indigo solution,
100 milligrammes of chlorate of potassa (which contain 39 milligrammes

174 - OZONE AND ANTOZONE.

of oxygen) were employed, then 1 milligramme of oxygen would destroy
199 —2,564 grammes of indigo solution. Now, to this last quantity of the
original indigo solution, containing hydrochloric acid, enough water must be
added to dilute it to 10 grammes,* in order to obtain a normal solution of
which 10 grammes will represent 1 milligramme of oxygen or ozone. One
part of the above normal solution may be further diluted with 9 parts of water
to yield =, normal test, in which 10 grammes will indicate ;/5 milligrammes of
OZone.

The analysis is performed as follows, for example, upon a bottle of air
ozonized by phosphorus: A little of the normal indigo solution is agitated
with the air in the bottle for afew minutes, and the air is then tested for ozone
by iodide of potassium starch, and the process is repeated until no ozone is

indicated even by a slightly elevated temperature. Then, for every 10.

grammes of the normal indigo solution employed, 1 milligramme of ozone is
present, and for every 10 grammes of the 75 normal solution, 75 of a milli-
gramme of ozone has been found.

Schoenbein discovered the remarkable bleaching properties upon indigo and
other plant colors of certain bodies which appear to absorb ozone, without
combining with it, and thus are in a position to yield the ozone again to other
substances. These bodies have been ealled “ ozone carriers.” They are oil
of turpentine, linseed oil, oil of lemons, tartaric and citric acids, ether, plati-
num sponge and black, powder of silver, gold, and platinum, also metallic mer-
cury. ‘These substances, shaken with solutions of indigo, litmus, cochenille, &e.,
discharge the color; with tincture of guiacum they yield a blue tinge, and give
the same color with iodide of potassium starch. One of the most remarkable
of the ozone carriers is the blood corpuseule. Ozonized oil of turpentine,
shaken with indigo solution, bleaches it after a while, but if blood corpuscules
are added, the decoloration is instantaneous, Platinum black is also very active
in its bleaching effects.

One of the best known ozone carriers is the oil of turpentine. If a bottle
be 4 filled with this body, exposed to the sun, and frequently shaken with air,
removing the stopper from time to time to renew the air, the oil is speedily laden
with ozone. After a time the oxidizing or bleaching effect of this oil is lost,
probably from its ozone entering into combination with it. Its bleaching
effect may be ascertained quantitatively by means of a solution of indigo.
Schoenbein prepared an oil of which 1 gramme possessed the same bleaching
power as 2 grammes of the best bleaching powder, (hypochlorite of lime.)
The ozonized oil bleaches most rapidly when warm, but its absolute decolor-

izing power is then less. All turpentine kept with access of air becomes”

ozonized, as may be seen from the bleached and corroded corks employed in
closing the vessels containing it. Upon the animal organism ozonized oil of
turpentine acts more energetically than oil not ozonized. According to Seitz,
5 drops of ozonized oil throws into convulsions and kills a frog and destroys
other small animals, while 20 drops of the pure oil produce no such effect.
Not long since a statement prevailed that the disease called painter’s colic is
’ due, not to the lead absorbed, but to the oil of turpentine. If this be so, the
ozonization of the turpentine may be the active agent for mischief, although
the lead may also be hurtful.

The existence of ozone in the atmosphere has been known since the discovery,
of the body ; but the conditions which govern its presence, as well as the actual
quantity of the gas, are yet undetermined. This arises from the small amount of
ozone in the air, from the readiness with which this active oxidant is destroyed
by the presence of bodies upon which it may act, and also for the want of a re-

* Hence, in this case, 10 —2.564—=7.436 water will be needed.

OZONE AND ANTOZONE. LaS

liable quantitative test. The largest proportion with which the air has been
artificially loaded with this substance amounts to too Of its volume.

Ozone may be determined quantitatively by ascertaining the amount of
iodine liberated from iodide of potassium; by determining the quantity of pe-
roxide of silver which it produces; or by finding the proportion of indigo solu-
tion which it decolorizes. But this kind of test has never been applied toa
great extent in determining the atmospheric ozone in long series of observa-
tions, owing to the difiiculty and labor of applying it.

A large volume of air brought slowly to act upon a small proportion of the
reagent is necessary for this purpose. In aspirating twenty-four litres of external
air ue a period of two and a half hours, poacepirating its action upon a
circle 3), of an inch in diameter on a delicate iodide of potassium starch paper,
I was unable to detect the slightest ozone reaction, although a slip of similar
paper exposed all day to the free atmosphere was colored sensibly.

The ordinary mode of observing ozone in the atmosphere consists in ascer-
taining the amount of color produced upon paper containing iodide of potas-
sium and starch, using precautions against the bleaching effect of the light
upon the iodide of starch developed by the ozone. A scale of shades of color
is employed for determining, by comparison, the proportion of the gas in ques-
tion present in the atmosphere. Boehm found that this test, prepared from
the same recipe by different persons, gave varied results. According to Osann’s
formula, thirty-two grains of starch are rubbed in a mortar, with the same
_ quantity of cold water ; three grains of iodide of potassium are then dissolved in
four ounces of boiling water, and the solution is added to the starch and well
incorporated with it. After boiling once more, the test is cooled and placed in
a bottle for use. When reagent paper is required, slips of Swedish filtering
paper are shaken up with the starch liquid, and then dried. ‘This paper is in-
stantly colored of a deep shade of blue when exposed to the ozonized air of a
bottle containing phosphorus and a little water. Exposed during the night to
the atmosphere, the coloration by ozone ig very decided.

In the ordinary atmospheric ozone observations the velocity of the air-cur-
rent which traverses the reagent paper intluences the result by bringing a greater
proportion of ozone upon the test ina given time. ‘The determinations which
have been hitherto made are very vague, unsatisfactory, and yield but rude
comparative results as to the subject in question.

Notwithstanding this difficulty, theories have not been wanting as to the in-
fluence of ozone upon the health. The oxidizing action of ozone upon organic
substances as shown by Gorup von Besanez, the phenomena of ozone carriers,

such as oil of turpentine, platinum sponge, and the blood corpuscules, have
facilitated the formation of such theories.

Dr. Smallwood, in a long series of observations upon the atmosphere of Can-
ada during the prevalence of the cholera and at other times, favored the in-
ference of a deficiency of ozone during the epidemic.

Dr. Moffatt concluded, from a large number of observations in England, that
the ozone in the atmosphere plays an important part in controlling or prevent-
ing epidemics, which it effects by removing the infectious matter from the air.
During the prevalence of the cholera at Newcastle, in 1853, this gas was at
its minimum. From August 24 to September 11, 1854, when the disease was
at its height in London, ozone was observed only once, and then in but small
quantity. On the 10th September a south wind prevailed, by which the ozone
was found to increase, and the cholera cases diminished. During the Crimean
war the surgeons of the I’rench army established the following facts :

1. In proportion as the ozonoscopic papers were more colored in the air, the
more numerous were the sick taken to each of the hospitals.

2. When the temperature was higher, there were fewer sick and fewer deaths.

176 OZONE AND ANTOZONE.

3. At the three observatories the curves designating the proportion of ozone
were essentially the same.

4, The curves for temperature were also identical.

5. At observatory No. 1 the quantity of ozone was znversely proportional
to the number of deaths, while in observatory No.2 this proportion was a
direct one.

Bineau detected ozone but seldom in the air of Lyons, although he observed
it always in the air of the neighboring country. He attributes the deficiency in
the city to the action of organic matter in the air.

Pless and Pierre discovered 0.02 millegramme of ozone in 255 litres of at-
mospheric air.

Zenger found in twelve experiments from 0.002 to 0.01 milligramme of this
body in 100 litres of air.

R. Angus Smith ascertained that the air of Manchester did not react with
ozonoscopic paper, nor was there any reaction in the country when the air had
first traversed the city; which he attributes to the absorption of ozone by the
products of combustion, (antozone ?) arising from the large amount of coal burned
in the city.

C. Kosmann ascertained that in Strasburg, and at a short distance from the
city, there was more ozone in the air of the country than in that of the city.
In the city, the ozone maximum occurred in the daytime; in the country, at
night. He found also, by the action upon Schoenbein’s test paper, that the
green portions of all plants exhale ozone.

Mr. Carey Lea discovered that the growth of plants is retarded in an atmo-
sphere strongly impregnated with ozone.

A. Poey found that in the city of Havana the ozone reaction diminished
with the elevation, while in the country the reverse was observed. He also
discovered that the moisture of the atmosphere influenced the amount of ozone.

I ascertained that the air of the public grounds in Washington yieided, at
night, abundant evidence of ozone, while the atmosphere of the streets of the
city, observed at the same time, indicated an absence of this gaz.

Dr. W. B. Rogers found that the air passing over Boston was deprived of
its ozone by the emanations from the city.

M. Hozeau, of Rouen, inferred, from a series of observations which extended
over four years, that the atmospheric ozone is least in February, begins to in-
crease in March, and reaches its maximum in May and June, after which month
it diminishes to its minimum in February.

J. Boehm has given the results of four years of regular observations of ozone,
made in the city and environs of Prague. His ozonoscopic paper was observed
and changed at 7 a. m. and 7 p. m., the proportion of ozone being determined
by the depth of shade of the color produced. He found that the ozone bears
no relation to the relative humidity, rain or thunder storms, clouds, &c., but is
intimately connected with the force and direction of the wind, which was gen-
erally from the west when the phenomenon of color was observed. The reason
of this fact is the relative position of the observatory to the city of Prague, so
that all easterly winds passed over a thickly-settled portion cf the town, by the
emanations of which they were deprived of their ozone.

in the country and suburbs, Boehm found ozone constantly present. With-
out expressing a decided opinion upon the relation of ozone to health, this
physicist calls attention to the fact that in Koenigstadt, a place not particu-
larly noted for its salubrity, he obtained as decided reactions of ozone as upon
the healthiest mountain, and that the coloration of the test paper is more de-
cided in Vienna, a city noted tor its lung and typhoid fevers, than in Prague,
which is ranked justly with the healthiest towns.

Irom what is known at present respecting “antozone,” it would seem that
this body plays an important part in depriving the atmosphere of ozone.

OZONE AND ANTOZONE. 177

.. In judging from the reaction upon iodide of potassium starch paper, ozone is
always in the free atmosphere in variable, but small, quantity. Such test pa-
pers are not blued when closed in a bottle, and scarcely so, if at all, in a room.
By exposure to the external atmosphere the effect upon them is extremely va-
riable. Sometimes in cities it is imperceptible. According to Osann, the color-
ation is greater by night than by day, and is more decided towards sunrise, at
the time when the atmospheric moisture is precipitated. It is greater in winter
than in summer, stronger with clouded than with clear sky, and is especially
powerful with snow clouds. Every flake of snow falling upon the test paper
produces a blue stain. By atmospheric electrical discharges ozone is, as might
be expected, very prevalent. Schoenbein calls attention to the fact that the
odor in the neighborhood of places struck by lightning is exactly that of ozone.

The whole subject of ozone, whether in its physical or physiological rela-
tions, is intensely interesting, and promises, when understood, to be the means
of solving many problems in the sciences now so ditheult to be comprehended.
No field of research appears to promise so rich a harvest to the skilled and
patient observer.

12s

VEGETATION AND THE ATMOSPHERE.

BY J. JAMIN.

TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FROM THE ‘REVUE DES DEUX MONDES.”

Persons who are not devoted to the physical sciences will, perhaps, pardon
me if I take the liberty of recalling to them that the air in the midst of which
animals and plants live is a mixture of two very different gases. ‘I'he one,
almost inert and without appreciable influence in the phenomena of nature, is
called azote; the other, on the contrary, possesses the most active properties
and performs the most important part in the support of life on the globe; this
is oxygen. Among other properties it possesses that of uniting with carbon
or charcoal, and while this union, or, to apply the scientific term, this combi-
nation is taking place a considerable quantity of heat and light is disengaged.
The carbon is said to burn, and it was thought at first, without reflection, to
be annihilated; it is, however, merely. transformed into a gas which mingles
with the atmosphere, from which the chemist can recover not only all the car-
bon which has been burned, but all the oxygen which united with it. In order
to recall to the memory the origin and composition of this compound gas it
has received the name of carbonic acid.

Wood, which is essentially composed of carbon and water, burns in the same
manner as carbon, expelling the water in the form of vapor and transforming
the carbon, by its union with the oxygen of the air, into carbonic acid. Fruit,
herbs, bread, and all our aliments, having a chemical composition analogous to
that of wood, may, like it, be burned in a furnace, and Lavoisier has taught us
that the substance of these aliments undergo a real but slow combustion in the
respiratory system of the animals which eat them. Every animal is therefore
a furnace, every aliment a combustible; the oxygen of the air is absorbed in
respiration, is replaced by carbonic acid, and the water ejected by the natural
outiets or by exhalation.

Since carbonic acid is necessarily produced by animal life it must form an
integral part of our atmosphere. Chemists, in effect, detect it there, but in the
‘minute proportion of four or five parts of the acid in ten thousand of air. It is
a gas which can neither support life nor combustion, since it is, on the contrary,
the product of these processes. Hence all animals confined under glass bells,
‘ filled with air, rapidly exhaust the oxygen, replace it by carbonic acid, and
soon die, not from a poisonous effect of the gas, but from a want of respiratory
sustenance.

Having recalled these facts, I shall describe a celebrated experiment which
vegetables themselves are continually performing in our midst without our
having consciousness of it, though it is accomplished on an immense scale, and
may be justly considered one of the most essential phenomena of the world;
an experiment, moreover, so simple that any one may repeat it at pleasure. In
order to success, it is necessary to take a healthy and fresh branch, in full
foliage, of one of those aquatic plants which grow immersed in ponds or rivers ;
introduce it into a glass jar, which is then filled with spring water, or, still
better, with what is called mineral water, which contains, as we know, a large
proportion of free carbonic acid; having closed the mouth of the jar when

VEGETATION AND THE ATMOSPHERE. 179

full, we invert it in a basin filled with water; if we then open the mouth the
water will retain its elevation and continue to fill the inverted jar. The appa-
ratus being thus arranged is to be carried to an open place where it can receive
the direct rays of the sun. As soon as the light strikes the leaves of the im-
mersed plant we see them become covered with a multitude of bubbles, which
rapidly enlarge, unite and rise to the upper part of the jar, where they accu-
mulate. Whenever the light is intereepted by the intervention of an opaque
screen the disengagement of bubbles stops, and we can, at will, and even at a
distance, by alternately intercepting the light and permitting it to strike the
leaves, arrest or restore the production of the bubbles. At the end of some
hours of continuous action the jar will be filled with gas, which resembles in
ordinary appearance atmospheric air, but has not its properties, for if we intro-
duce suddenly into the interior of the jar a small taper which has just- been
extinguished, but which still retains at the extremity of its wick a few glowing
points, it again instantly kindles and continues to burn with unwonted brillianey.
The gas is not air, but oxygen. -In this form and with aquatic plants the
experiment is striking, because the production of the gas in this case is rapid,
and we assist, as it were, at the birth of the oxygen. We can produce the
same effect, perhaps less rapidly, with all plants; and in grder not to change
their ordinary condition we may expose them to the sun, under glass bells, pre-
viously filled with carbonic acid; after the lapse of a day the carbonic acid gas
will have disappeared and its place be supplied with nearly pure oxygen.
Whatever may be the plant, or whatever be the experimental process employed,
the action remains always the same. ‘The explanation of the tact is easy. The
green part of the vegetable decomposes the carbonic acid, extracts the carbon,
which it appropriates to itself, and abandons the oxygen to the atmosphere.
In the dark, and during the night, the part performed is changed; then, in-
stead of absorbing carbonic acid, the plant gives it off; but the nocturnal re-
action being inferior to that of the day, the plant performs a part on the whole
which is opposite to that of the animal—it absorbs the carbonic acid which the
latter exhales, and returns to the atmosphere the oxygen which the animal
consumed.

Seeing the experiment so clearly, and its explanation so simple, it is difficult
_ to conceive that they were not seen at the first glance. We find it difficult sto
believe that this was not the case; but every great discovery is made at a cost
to humanity. At the beginning all is obscurity and perplexity, and it is only
after long research and after much hesitation that we settle upon a few scat-
tered truths, and when a clear and steady light illuminates all the previous
obscurity it is only after the labors of several generations are collected and the
efforts of a succession of men of genius have been devoted to the object. The
history of great discovery is not without interest, and I purpose in the follow-
ing pages to retrace the several steps which have led to the establishment of
the relations which exist between plants and the atmosphere, including in the
sketch some of the results of the more recent investigations. »

I.

9

Charles Bonnet, a Genevese physician, was the first who experimentally un-
dertook, about the middle of the eighteenth century, the problem which occupies
us. It was the perusal of a once celebrated work, The Spectacle of Nature,
which had decided his vocation. His attention was first directed to the subject
of spontaneous generation, a question agitated even at that period, and the inter-
est of which has but augmented with the progress of time. He relinquished this
subject to consider another whose fertility he did not perhaps altogether antici-
pate; it was the inquiry, Of what use are leaves? and he made two experiments
which have acquired a certain classic character. By the first, he proved that

180 VEGETATION AND THE ATMOSPHERE.

light exerts over the green portions of vegetables so strong an attraction that,
if placed in the dark, they direct themselves towards the smallest openings
which convey it to them. The second showed that when plunged in water,
plants disengage in sunlight a large quantity of azr ; but there Bonnet stopped:
he knew not what that air was, nor could he know it, since at that epoch the
first principles of modern chemistry were known to none.

Priestley, who was the rival and in some respects the predecessor of Lavoi-
sier, was led by the results of his discoveries to study the action of plants on
the atmosphere. He had just succeeded in isolating the remarkable gas which
energetically supports the combustion of a lamp and the respiration of animals,
and had for this reason called it vital air. He had ascertained, moreover, that
small animals confined in this air or in atmospheric air soon changed its proper-
ties to such an extent that the animals died and the flame was extinguished.
_ It is true, Priestley did not know the real nature of oxygen, and through a blind
feeling of rivalry refused to the end to adopt the theory of respiration just an-
nounced by Lavoisier ; but he knew, nevertheless, how to deduce from his experi-
ments a logical consequence which was of the greatest importance. Perceiving
that these little animals vitiated the confined air by their exhalations, he com-
prehended that all the individuals of the animal kingdom produce the same ‘ef-
fect continually on the entire atmosphere, and that they must infallibly die, if
there were not in the action of natural forces some inverse action constantly
tending to restore to the air its purity, in proportion as this was destroyed by
animal respiration. He proceeded to seek for this counterpoise, this regenera-
tive action, and he found it in vegetables.

He placed in the air confined under a glass bell an animal anda plant. The
former corrupted the air and died; but atter the lapse of a certain time, Priest-
ley discovered that the latter had restored to the air the vital property or the
purity necessary to support life. This was one of the most important facts of
the mechanism of our world. From this moment, it was known, though not
yet in its details, that vegetables and animals execute antagonistic functions,
these rendering the air untit for the support of life, those repairing the mischief.
The Royal Society of London conferred on Priestley, in 1773, the Copley
medal, and in presenting it, the president of that celebrated company thus
characterized the discovery of Priestley:

‘¢Plants do not grow in vain; each individual in the vegetable kingdom, from the oak of
the forest to the grass of the field, is useful to the human race. All plants contribute to
maintain our atmosphere in the degree of purity necessary to animal life. The forests, even,
of the most remote countries contribute to our preservation, while deriving nourishment from
the exhalations of our bodies which have become injurious to ourselves.”

This glory of Priestley, however, was to be overclouded. After such success-
fut labors, such grand and comprehensive views, such rewards and public honors,
Priestley desired to repeat his former experiments, and obtained wholly oppo-
site results; plants, instead of purifying the air, now appeared to him to pollute
it. Surprised at this inexplicable contradiction between the past and the pres-
ent, he multiplied and varied his experiments, and all that he could substan-
tiate was, that vegetables possess the property at one time of purifying, at
another of vitiating the air. he law which had won for him the Copley medal
was therefore not general, and the consequences he had drawn from it not in-
contestable. A refugee in America, after a life agitated by religious discussions,
Priestley died in 1804, having made in chemistry brilliant discoveries which he
did not comprehend, and in vegetable physiology contradictory experiments
which he was not able to reconcile.

Yet Priestley was deceived in nothing; plants do in fact alternately perform
the two functions which he had assigned to them, and the only thing which he
had not diseovered was the condition which determines, frequently the restora-
tive, occasionally the deleterious action, a condition which Bonnet had caught

ee

VEGETATION AND THE ATMOSPHERE. 181

_

sight of, and which Ingenhousz was soon to place in open day. Ingenhousz was
born at Breda, in 1730; he was a physician, and came to England to observe
the process of inoculation for the small-pox, which was then beginning to be
practiced. It was during this visit that he became acquainted with the labors
of Priestley, and resolved to explain their contradictions; this he succeeded in
doing in 1779, and he has himself recorded his discovery in these words:

“*Searcely had I entered upon these researches, when the most interesting views presented
themselves. I observed that plants not only possess the faculty of correcting impure air in
six or more days, as the experiments of M. Priestiey seem to indicate; but that they accom-
plish this important office, in the most complete manner, in the course of a few hours; that
this surprising operation is by nu means owing to vegetation, but to the influence of the
light of the sun upon the plants; that it commences only after the sun has for some time
risen above the horizon, and that it is completely suspended during the darkness of the
night; that plants shaded by tall buildings, or by other plants, do not perform this function—
that is, they do not purify the air, but, on the contrary, exhale a deleterious air, and diffuse a
real poison through the atmosphere which surrounds us; that the production of healthy air
grows languid towards the close of day, and entirely ceases at sunset; that all plants cor-
rupt the ambient atmosphere during the night; that all parts of the plant are not engaged in
purifying the air, but only the leaves and green branches; that bitter, ill-smelling, and even
poisonous plants perform this office equally with those which difluse the sweetest scents and
are most salutary, &c.”’ *

Ingenhousz had thus succeeded in discovering the force which occasions the
respiration of plants. That force which had not before been suspected is from
the sun, is ight. It diffuses itself over the leaves, which absorb it, and fulfils
the vast work of regenerating the atmosphere. Thus far the most important,
as also the most ditlcult part of the task was achieved; but there remained
yet quite as much to be done. The sciences resemble the sieve of the Danaides ;
each one tries to fill it; no one succeeds, because every discovery discloses a
new horizon and presents a more remote goal which is never attained. After
Ingenhousz, it still remained to be asked in what consisted that alteration of the
air which animals occasion, and the remedy which vegetables supply. It be-
longed to chemistry to answer, and Lavoisier, though not specially operating
with that yiew, furnished the solution of this new problem. He furnished it on
that day when he showed that animals absorb oxygen, burn slowly the organic

materials with which they are nourished and return by expiration a quantity

of carbonic acid containing all the carbon which they have consumed. “The

' vitiated or corrupted air, as Priestley and Ingenhousz called it, was consequently

air deprived of oxygen and charged with carbonic acid, and, since plants purify
it, this clearly indicates that they decompose that carbonic acid, retaining the
carbon and restoring the oxygen to the atmosphere.

Considering the then existing state of chemistry, it might be thought that
every one would have divined and proclaimed this explanation. It was not so,
however, and new experiments were needed to discover it. It was a Genevese
who had commenced this long train of deductions, and it was another Genevese
who had the honor of completing it. His name was Sennebier; he had been
the friend of Charles Bonnet, and to his example owed pursuit of the sciences
as well as the councils which determined him to the study of the relations of
plants and the air. He ascertained that vegetables placed in boiled water dis-
engage no gas in the sun, but that they develop oxygen in abundance when
the water has been previously charged with carbonic acid. He thence con-
cluded that this gas is necessary to the respiration of plants, that it is decom-
posed by them, and thus had the honor of announcing the law already prepared
and discovered by his predecessors. The question might have now been justly
considered as solved; but during these labors, which had occupied more than half
a century, many errors had become mingled with the truths obtained, and con-
tradictory assertions threw doubt upon different points of detail. A review of

* Experiences sur les Vegetaux, par. 1, Ingenhousz, 1780,

182 VEGETATION AND THE ATMOSPHERE.

all these phenomena was necessary ; it was Thomas de Saussure who under-
took to supply this, and who, without adding any capital fact to the cluster of
previous observations, succeeded in giving them an experimental confirmation
which has not since been contested. After these celebrated experiments, there
was a long period of rest. Physicists and naturalists seem to have considered
the question as exhausted, and transferred their inquiries to subjects which
they thought more fertile. Nevertheless, the more recent labors of MM. Dau-
beny, Draper, Cloés, and Gratiolet, and above all of M. Boussingault, have suc-
cessively intervened to raise difficulties which to this day remain in suspense ;
but I prefer to leave out of view whatever does not possess the interest of the
general theory, and shall speak neither of the azote which vegetables seem al-
ways to disengage at the same time with oxygen, nor of certain deleterious
gases, such as the oxide of carbon and carbonated hydrogen, which M. Boussin-
galt has recently detected among the products of their exhalations ; nor, lastly,
of the attempts made without much success to appreciate the special influence
of the different solar rays. What I wish to show is, that after the first investi-
gations above recounted, we find ourselves confronted by a second class, far
more extensive and complex, with which it is now necessary to deal. It is
necessary to inquire what becomes of the carbon which remains in vegetables
after the decomposition of carbonic acid.

TE:

While the atmosphere furnishes carbon to the leaves, the boughs bring them
water, which has been drawn from the soil, and it is natural to think that these
two bodies, in meeting, pass mutually into combination; they, in effect, do
combine and in very variable proportions ; we will cite some examples: if 12
molecules of carbon unite with 20 moletules of water they are enabled to form
either cellulose, which constitutes at once the vessels and entire skeleton of
the plant, or fecula, which is known by everybody, or lastly dextrine, which
is soluble and of which sirups are sometimes made; but, according jo cireum-
stances and the organs, the proportion of the two bodies may change, and with
it the chemical products which take place. ‘Thus 12 molecules of carbon com-
bined with 14 molecules of water constitute glucose, or the sugar contained in
ripe grapes; and if from this glucose we retrench two molecules of water, it
is the sugar of the cane or the beet which would be formed. In fine, by pro-
cesses which are unknown to us, water and carbon meeting in the leaves com-
bine chemically, and produce an infinite number of compounds, differing ac-
cording to the place, the organs, the nature, the age and the external conditions
of the vegetable.

Besides the substances just spoken of, and which are compounds of carbon
and water, plants give rise to still another class of substances which are char-
acterized by an excess of hydrogen. ‘These are the gums, oils, wax, balsams,
essences, &c. Whence comes this hydrogen? ‘They form also substances
in which a fourth element, azote, makes its appearance. Does this come from
the atmosphere? is it derived from the humus! These are questions which
directly concern agriculture and for which it must consult chemistry. M.
Boussingault is he who has treated of them first and best, and he has been
placed in the most favorable circumstances for doing so, being at the same time
at the head of a great agricultural enterprise, and habituated to the most deli-
cate procedures of chemical analysis. ‘lhe method he employs is proper to
himself; it is sufficiently general and flexible to adapt itself to the demands of
all special cases. It consists as follows: In a soil previously analyzed is sown
a small number of grains whose chemical composition has been determined,
and pure water is applied. This last disappears almost wholly by evaporation,

and a small portion only becomes fixed. ‘lhe plant grows, gains in weight, .

VEGETATION AND THE ATMOSPHERE. 183

because it draws nourishment from the air, and also because it seeks some in
the soil. At the end of a certain period of vegetation it is gathered, and then
we ascertain by new chemical analyses, first, how much carbon, oxygen, hy-
drogen, and azote it has gained; secondly, how much of those substances the
soil has lost—that is, how much it has given up to the plant. The difference
is due either to the air or to the water. That settles the account, and event-
ually the balance of profits and losses.

The application of this method, as rigorous in its conception as dificult in
its practice, has disclosed a first fact of the same order as the decomposition of
carbonic acid. All the plants have acquired an excess of hydrogen which
comes to them not from the soil or the air, neither of which contains any ; it
has; therefore, of necessity, been derived from the water. Plants, then, do not
limit their action to separating oxygen from carbon; they also divorce hydro-
gen and oxygen, retaining the first, expelling the second. The water was hy-
drogen burned, as the carbonic acid was carbon consumed; in both cases the
plants have destroyed the effects of the combustion by delivering up the com-
bustible bodies in the state in which they were before they were burnt. In
verifying this action, finally exerted on the water, it has not been ascertained
when it is effected or in what organs accomplished.

A second consequence flows from the analyses of M. Boussingault, namely,
that every plant arrived at maturity has gained azote, which is deposited chiefly
in its seeds ; and as this azote may come either from the air which contains it
in a free state, or from manures which have communicated it to the soil, it was
necessary to institute special experiments to determine its origin. M. Boussin-
gault proceeded as follows: he first sowed trefoil (clover) ina soil formed ex-
clusively of calcined sand, which could only furnish to the plant mineral sub-
stances and the pure water with which it was moistened ; as to azote, it con-
tained none. Under these exceptional conditions the trefoil still completed all
the phases of its vegetation, and in the end it had acquired a small but positive
proportion of azote, which necessarily came from the air. The Jerusalem arti-
choke gave the same result with greater distinctness. After having matured, it
. contained twice as much azote as the seed from which it sprang; but when the
attempt was made to reproduce the experiment with cereals, and above ail
with wheat, it was found that the azote of the grain was carefully preserved,
but had in no degree augmented.

In all these cases the vegetation of the plants was extremely embarrassed,
none of them having the aspect of healthiness which is witnessed in rich soils;
the artichoke, however, suffered less than the trefoil, and this less than the
wheat, which could not advance so far as to mature its grains. 'The reason of
this is evident—azote was wanting; all plants need it, the cereals exact it, and
when they do not find it in the soil they languish and often die. In order to
confirm this conclusion M. Boussingault submitted to a comparative trial three
plants of Aelcanthus placed in three exactly similar pots, filled with pure sand
and moistened with pure water. The first received no manuring, but to the
second were supplied eight centigrammes, and to the third sixteen centi-
grammes of azotate of potash. From the first days the plants exhibited the
difference of the tre:tment to which they were subjected. The first languished
and died; the second vegetated, but remained sickly; the third was remarka-
ble for its fine health. At maturity, the second had borrowed from the soil
four centigrammes of azotate of potash, and the third eight. But what was
chiefly remarkable was, that duriug its progress the last decomposed twice as
much carbonic acid as the second. The azote thus performed the part of ex-
citing the other functions and of giving to the subject which receives it, or of
taking away from that which is deprived of it, the vitality without which it
could not act upon the atmosphere.

’

184 VEGETATION AND THE ATMOSPHERE.

Now, be it remarked, a plant contains more than the half of its weight of
carbon and only some thousandths of azote. For what, then, does this sub-
stauce serve in vegetation, which is so necessary to it, although introduced in
so weak a proportion? M. Payen will téach us. According to this skilful
chemist, all the organs of vegetables commence by an azotized matter analo-
gous to fibrine, to which are added by little and little the cellular and fibrous
tissues which, in expanding, produce the entire plant. This fibrine is never
destroyed, is found in all its organs, and is thus the rudiment of all the parts
of the plant, which cannot be developed without it, and consequently without
the azote, which is its essential base. In fine, plants are composed of carbon,
water and hydrogen in excess; they contain besides a fourth simple body,
azote, which occurs in a very minute proportion, but whose presence is essen-
tial to life. The atmosphere furnishes carbon in abundance; water, that is to
say oxygen and hydrogen, is given by the rains; azote is required from the
soil, and as it is rare therein we introduce it under the form of manure. It is
the great care of the agriculturist; it is the heaviest, the most indispensable,
and the host productive of his expenditures.

Ill.

Notwithstanding the important knowledge which we possess on the subject
under consideration, it is still impossible not to recognize on many points the
insufficiency of our information. That which is most inexplicable in our world,
that which should most awaken our curiosity and invite our researches, is the
great physiological fact of which I have related the discovery. The chemists
have assiduously studied carbonic acid; they know all the properties it pos-
sesses: they can foresee all the reactions which it occasions or undergoes in
the conditions in which it pleases them to place it; they are ignorant of none
of the circumstances which produce it or destroy it; but they have never seen
it steadily decomposing under the influence of light in the presence of some
inorganic matter, and yet, what they cannot effect, the smallest leaf shone upon
by the sun produces instantly with a rapidity and abundance which the
naturalist regards with admiration. In ten hours an aquatic plant yields fifteen
times its own volume of oxygen; a single leaf of the water-lily diffuses 300
litres during each summer; and M. Boussingault having directed into a vase
filled with vine leaves, in the sun, a current of carbonic acid, received on its
exit only pure oxygen. Now we are obliged to acknowledge that this fact, so
common, so easily accomplished by the leaves at every hour of the day, chem-
istry can neither comprehend nor imitate.

If we cannot understand and imitate the conditions of a fact relatively so
simple and so definite, what must not be our embarrassment when we would
analyze the chemical and physiological phenomena which ensue from it? We
seé in effect three simple bodies, and rarely four, combine in relations indefi-
nitely variable in order to give rise to the most numerous and different com-
pounds—wood, starch, sugars, oils, wax, balsams, essences, both fragrant and
offensive, delicious fruits and violent poisons, acids like vinegar, and alkalis
like quinine or strychnine, coloring or colorless substances—in a word, products
whose infinite variety transcends the dreams of imagination. Not without dis-
may must we measure the depth of our ignorance in the presence of phenomena
so multiplied, and whose mechanism escapes us so absolutely.

There are, however, ill-disciplined minds which wish to explain everything,
especially what they are most ignorant of. It has been said that plants proba-
bly contained compounds of carbonic acid and of azote, formed at night and de-
composed in the light during the day; it has been also said that there exists
in green leaves a sort of fermentation deriving its activity from the sun, and

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VEGETATION AND THE ATMOSPHERE. 185

whose function it is to decompose carbonic acid. These explanations have not
only the defect of being illusory and conjectural, they are demonstrably false,

‘for the pounded leaves, which preserve the same composition, ought then to

continue the same functions, which is not true. There is also a whole school
of naturalists who content themselves with ascribing the functions of vegeta-
bles to what they call life—a kind of unapproachable foree which suffices to
explain everything by the sole virtue of its name; these appear to me to re-
nounce all of scientitic progress, like the ignorant devotees who explain all
phenomena by saying that God produces them. It is God, beyond a doubt,
who has ordered the world, but he permits us sometimes to inspect the me-
chanism. Without doubt, also, it is life which disposes the functions of beings,
but before proposing it as the final cause and ultimate explanation of facts, it
behooves to know a little what life is, and of what contrivances it makes nse.
We see to what weakness we are reduced as soon as the basis of experiment
fails us, when, in order to fill up the gaps of our knowledge, we strive to grap-
ple ourselves to hypotheses, to unexplained forces which explain nothing. Let
us honestly avow our ignorance, and gird up our loins and seek.

T’o console ourselves for this avowal, which may possibly hurt our self-love,
and to find encouragement for the labors of to-morrow, let us measure, with a
view to their consequences, the importance of the facts which we know to-day.
If plants give out oxygen, animals absorb it, and a compensation is established
between these inverse functions. We can demonstrate it experimentally by
confining under a glass bell an animal anda plant. Separated, each of them
would die—the first by being suffocated in the carbonic acid it exhales, the
second because it would be deprived of this gas which nourishes it. United
in the dark, the animal and the vegetable would injure instead of aiding one
another; but in the light of the sun the life of the one supports that of the
other; the animal, burning his aliments, furnishes carbonic acid to the plant,
and the latter restores to the animal the oxygen which is necessary to it. This
experiment would be in little the image of the world, and it is thus that Priestley

- conceived the eternal equilibrium of it. Nothing can be more grand and

beautiful than this thought, but it is necessary to complete it. If the bell of
which we have just spoken were very small, the least excess which might occur
in the respiration of the animal, or the least interruption in the action of the
sun, would exaggerate the quantity of carbonic acid and cause first the animal
to perish, and then the vegetable. Are we, then, exposed on the earth to alike
danger, and are plants so necessary to us that we must cease to live as soon as
they should cease to act? Believe it not, for we shall demonstrate that this
fear would be -vain. The human population of the globe may be approxi-
mately rated at a thousand millions of individuals, and we shall not be far
from the truth in assuming that all other animals taken together exert upon
the atmosphere, by their respiration, an effect equal to that of three thousand
millions of adult men. This makes for the whole animal kingdom a population
equivalent to four thousand millions of human beings. Now, as the mean
quantity of oxygen which an adult human being consumes in a day has been
measured, we can calculate that of the total population of the globe. It is
very great, no doubt, but, on the other hand, the provision of oxygen in the
atmosphere is greater still. It is so much greater than the consumption of
animals that it would require eight thousand millions of years to exhaust it.
In eight centuries it would fail but a millionth part, and if the vegetables
ceased their action, it would require at least two thousand years before the
nicest chemical analysis could avail to detect a change in the composition of
the air. The service that vegetables render us is therefore much less imme-
diate than Priestley thought; it is a service of distant reversion, and we may
without ingratitude relegate our acknowledgments to posterity.

.

186 VEGETATION AND THE ATMOSPHERE.

But the earth is quite old, and it is not impossible that its atmosphere has
undergone, since the creation, progressive changes which have become very
considerable through the lapse of so many ages. We have here a very curious °
question, which has been considered by M. Brougniart, and which we will
proceed to study with him. The earth covers enormous, we might say inex-
haustible, masses of carbon under the form of coal, anthracite, lignite and peat,
and it cannot. be doubted for an ‘instant that these deposits are not the accumu-
lated fossil remains of innumerable vegetables. Now there is for a plant but
one single mode of acquiring carbon—to imbibe it in the form of carbonic acid
from the air, and consequently all those masses of coal which cover Belgium,
England, a large portion of America, and which are found at all points of
the globe, were once diffused in a gaseous state through the atmosphere;
they were there combined with oxygen, and the globe in the beginning was
involved in an aeriform envelope which contained azote, a great deal of car-
bonic acid, little or no oxygen. If we add that, at the moment, the earth was
incandescent, we see that all the carbon must in effect at that temperature
have been burned on contact with oxygen.

Thus constituted, the earth cooled down; but the composition of its atmo-
sphere rendered it uninhabitable for animals, since they had need of oxygen
and there was none, since they would have been suffocated in the carbonic
acid and azote which prevailed at the moment. Hence the first strata of sedi-
mentary deposits contain no animals. In return, the earth was as favorably
prepared for the production of plants as it was unfit for the nourishment of
animals; it was soon, therefore, covered with luxuriant forests, whose remains,
in accumulating, formed coal. We find therein all the species then living.
There were gigantic eguisetums, arborescent ferns comparable to our oaks, and
palms which towered above everything that the vegetable kingdom now offers
us. And while these immense deposits were forming, oxygen, perpetually dis-
engaged by the action of the sun, was gradually impregnating the atmosphere
-and preparing it for the advent of the animal tribes. Of these, in due time,
the first creations made their appearance, having since varied from age to age.
At the epoch of the coal formations the forests were tenanted by huge reptiles,
cold-blooded animals, for which little oxygen sufficed ; but it was not till after
the nearly total disappearance of the carbonic acid that the earth witnessed
the arrival of the mammifers, which had awaited a richer atmosphere.

There are those at once timorous and ignorant who seriously ask what will
become of the earth and themselves when mankind have burnt up all the coal.
I will tell you, honest folks, what will become of us. The coal will have
again been converted into carbonic acid, oxygen will have disappeared, and
the creat vegetable tribes will return; but-if it is true, as they would persuade
us, that the animal species, by growing gradually more perfect, have advanced
from the primitive forms up to man, the return of the elements to their point
of departure would bring man back to his origin by an inverted degenerescence.
To have had crocodiles among our ancestors, be it so; but to see in perspec-
tive a posterity composed of ichthyosauri, this certainly is the most disheart-
ening of metempsychoses !

But to return to serious matters: if we are ignorant of the mechanism of
the living organs, at least we know the functions they fulfil, and can express
clearly the part which they play in the physical world. With the water and
azotized substances which they take from the soil, with a gas which they col-
lect in the air, vegetables compose organic matter, which they accumulate in
their tissues and which they hold in reserve for the use of animals. The vege-
table kingdom seems to be only a great laboratory, an atelier of production
where every plant has the same function—that of forming materials as varied
in their composition as are the forms of each one of them.. To this common

VEGETATION AND THE ATMOSPHERE. 187

character it is necessary to add another, which is that receiving as primary
material carbonic acid and water, substances burnt, plants have the faculty of
expelling the oxygen and of extracting from them the carbon and hydrogen,
to which they restore the property of being susceptible of being burnt anew.
These chemical actions take place within their organs, but these organs are
only the seat of them; the cause of these actions is without; it proceeds from
the sun. :

The animal has received a diametrically opposite mission. It creates not,
it destroys; in place of solidifying the liquids and gases, it separates them and
restores them to the atmosphere; in fine, far from bringing back bodies to the
combustible state, it burns them. The herbivorous animal derives all his nour-
ishment from plants; he transforms a part of them into water and carbonic
acid, he accumulates the rest in appropriate organs. ‘The carnivorous profits
of these reserves, and finishes by restoring to the atmosphere what vegetables
have extracted from it ; what the herbivores have preserved of it, and whatever
the class to which it appertains, every animal rejects by the natural ducts an
abundant provision of azotized matter which it deposits on the soil. It is pre-
cisely this matter which vegetables take up again, without which they cannot
live, which they possess the power of elaborating, transforming, accumulating,
and which they return to animals after having restored to it the nutritive quali-
ties which it had lost. Thus is closed that admirable circle of opposite trans-
formations and of mutual services where we see the animal and the vegetable
eternally exchange the same matter; this, which receives it gaseous, disoxi-
dizing and solidifying it; that, which receives it combustible, again dispersing
anew after having burnt it. Priestley saw in plants predestined servitors whose
office it is to purify the air; but they have another function much more imme-
diate and render us a service quite otherwise indispensable, that, namely, of
extracting and prgparing our aliments. Their action on the air would only be
sensible after a long succession of ages; but if a single year drought annihi-
lated the fruits of the earth, a frightful famine would destroy in a short time
all the animals which the globe nourishes.

From the sun it is that daily nourishment, life, force, and all our power is
derived. The light, the chemical emanations, all the rays which that orb sends
us, are extremely rapid vibrations, analogous to those produced by sound ;
there is movement, there is force; as soon as it reaches the plant that force is
absorbed, it disappears, it is extinguished. But no force is extinguished ex-
cept on the condition of having produced an effect, performed a work which is
its equivalent. Now the work performed by the light which the leaves absorb
is decomposing the carbonic acid. So, too, let it not be forgotten, there is
needed a given amount of force to disunite a given quantity of oxygen and car-
bon; it is the sun which every hour of the day furnishes it gratuitously.

If now we place in presence of one another this oxygen and carbon, and,
by an inverse operation, combine them by burning this carbon, they will pro-
duce, in uniting anew, all the force which it had been necessary to expend in
order to separate them; that is to say, all which the sun had furnished. There
will be heat and light, as experience shows, and there will be force also, which
may be collected by means of calorific machinery and employed in our service.
And we shall do well to reflect that it is the sun which has prepared for us
that heat, that light, and that foree; which has furnished to the carboniferous
forests at an epoch when man as yet: was not, what man recovers and disposes
of to-day.

And what is true of our inanimate furnaces will! be found to be repeated in
those living furnaces which we call animals. They likewise burn organic
material, produce heat which elevates their temperature, and develop force and
movement: a force which they do not create, which they owe to that very com-

188 VEGETATION AND THE ATMOSPHERE.

bustion, and upon the same terms as do steam-machines; a force previously in-
fused by the sun into plants, absorbed by them, virtually preserved in their
products which are our sustenance, which we disengage by respiration and
which our muscles apply under the direction of our wants and our will. This
whole grand generalization of the phenomena of the world is the work of mod.
ern chemists and physicists. It was MM. Dumas and Boussingault who first
disengaged it; the mechanical theory of heat completed and demonstrated it;
but it already existed entire in the conception of Lavoisier when he wrote:

“Organization, spontaneous movement, life, exist only on the surface of the earth in
places exposed to the light. It might be said that the fable of the torch of Prometheus was
the expression of a philosophical truth which had not escaped the ancients. Without light
nature would be without life—it would be dead and inanimate. A beneficent God, in sup-
plying light, has spread over the surface of the earth organization, sentiment, and thought.”

TY.

If during the regular course of its existence, a vegetable accumulates organic
matter, there are nevertheless two moments when it loses this essential character
and comports itself like the animals: it is at the commencement and the end of
its life, when it germinates and when it reproduces itself. very seed, besides
the embryo which for long years preserves the principle of life, encloses a pro-
vision of organic matter destined for the first nourishment of the springing plant.
Cast on a warm and humid soil, it germinates; its radicle seeks in the soil a
point of support and liquids; the germen rises upward; the seminal leaves or
cotyledons are developed, and the rudimentary plant is established in virtue.of
intrinsic and transmitted life. Now, during this first period, the provision of
accumulated matter is divided into two parts: one is burnt by a sort of respira-
tion, the other, undergoing complicated chemical actions, is transported into the
organs and there becomes fixed inconstituting them. Everything occurs nearly
as in an animal and without any intervention of light; but after this primitive
phase, when the respiratory organs have received their first development, the
plant waits for the rays of the sun to continue its evolution, and, as soon as
these reach it, it inclines towards them as if eagerly to collect them, it becomes
green, and commences, only to desist at its death, that decomposition of car-
bonie acid and that accumulation of matter which is its function and its pre-
destination.

In order better to study this period of intrinsic life in the seed, M. Boussin-
gault conceived the happy idea of prolonging it by indefinitely retarding the
action of the light. The experiment was made with peas, in a soil without
manure. After having germinated, they continued to grow, giving forth a pale,
siender, creeping stem which at length perished without having borne seeds.
During this whole period the peas continued to work up the organic material
originally contained in the seed, and in proportion as their life was laboriously
prolonged, they dispensed it by little and little in order to sustain it. At last,
each plant had lost more than half the carbon which the seed had originally
provided. While this experiment was going on in darkness, other peas, sowed
at the same time, were successively transferred into the light. From that
moment everything became changed; real life was developed, and the plant,
being now able to avail itself of the nourishment contained in the air, gained
each day, in the sun, very nearly as much carbon as it had previously con-
sumed in darkness.

In nature all things touch upon one another: vegetables in the seed, animals
in the egg, appear to accomplish the same acts and exist in the same conditions.
In both cases, a mass of organic matter accompanies the germ; the egg and
the seed may preserve for an indeterminate length of time the virtual principle
of life. A little heat will commence the evolution, and from that moment the

VEGETATION AND THE ATMOSPHERE. 189

organic matter, absorbed by the nascent tissues, transported by the vessels which
are forming, takes its place in the organs into whose constitution it enters. Dur-
ing this whole period, the plant and animal subsist on their own resources,
drawing nothing from without, and to complete the analogy, they burn a por-
tion of their own substance. By and by, when all is exhausted, the animal,
already formed, is prepared to live, as the plant, already delineated, is prepared
to vegetate, anda common want displays itself at the same moment in both
existences: that of finding external nourishment. From this point all analogy
ceases, and the separation of the two kingdoms commences. The vegetable
ereates and reduces, the animal destroys and oxydizes.

Let us pursue these analogies. In every flower that opens, botany of late
has shown us the organs of two opposite sexes which concur, each after its
character, in the fecundation of the germs. Now, at this moment, when the
flower seems to borrow that sexual.function of reproduction which we might
think to be the exclusive privilege of animals, it again imitates them in burning
the organic material by an active respiration. ‘ All flowers,” said Priestley,
“invariably exhale a deadly air during the day and during the night, in light
and in darkness.”’ Daily experience confirms this assertion, and De Saussure
has shown that this poisonous gas is carbonic acid. At last one of our most
justly celebrated chemists, M. Cahours, has given us the results of a recent and
complete study of this respiration of flowers and fruits under all circumstances.

If itis true that this combustion of organic matter, that this expenditure
and loss of force, be necessary in itself to accomplish the act of fecandation, it
is in the sexual organs especially that it should be present. Tixperiment in
effect has confirmed this conjecture, and it has even been ascertained that it is
the stamen, the male organ, which dispenses the most. Nor does this fact stop
there. All combustion disengages heat: it is to their respiration that animals
owe their high temperature, and it is of course necessary that the stamens and
pistils should develop heat since they respire. The question was to find ther-
mometers sufficiently sensitive and a suitable plant. ‘The first vegetable which
has allowed the verification of a rise of temperature is one which would never
have been suspected of so much ardor, the pumpkin. Its flowers are large,
and admit of the introduction of the air-thermometer; some of them are male
and others female, and the latter have evinced a greater degree of coolness than
the former.

Still the gourds, melons, and pumpkins grow warm in but a slight degree,
and so, it might be said, resemble.the cold-blooded animals. ‘There are plants
‘which resemble the warm-blooded animals, and these are the Arums. One of
them, the Arum maculatum, which is found abundant in hedges, is enveloped
in a rolled leaf which encloses the flower in a chamber, and which prevents the
heat from being dissipated in space. Observe now the singular phenomenon
which has been perceived by Lamarck, Sennebier, Bory de Saint Vincent, and
by De Saussure himself. Habitually the Arum is cold, but at a given moment,
which must be watched and skilfully improved, the temperature of the plant
raised from 7 to 8 degrees above that of the atmosphere. Hubert, a truly sa- —
gacious observer, succeeded in introducing a small and very sensitive thermome-
ter, sometimes among the stamens, which became heated to 22 degrees, some-
times among the pistils, which produced an action one-half less. The other
parts of the plant manifested no special action. By care and watchfulness, De
Saussure surprised four Arums at the moment of calefaction, and placed them
under a glass bell filled with air. The glass was immediately covered with a
moisture which attached itself to the surface, a great absorption of oxygen took
place, and a correspondent production of carbonic acid. In its chemical acti n
and the energy of that action, the plant was comparable to a smallanimal. At
another time De Saussure decomposed the plant into different parts, which he

-

190 VEGETATION AND THE ATMOSPHERE.

studied separately: the sexual organs consumed 132 measures of oxygen, and
the rest of the flower only 30. . ~

After fecundation, the fruit begins to be developed and the plant to nourish
it. Not only does the plant furnish it with the matter accumulated in its own
tissues, but with a quantity greater still, which it burns by a respiration proper
to it. The whole lite of the vegetable seems then exclusively devoted to the
accomplishment of this last duty of nourishing the fruit. In this task it im-
poverishes itself; the beet and the cane dispense all the sugar they possessed,
every plant exhausts the provisions which it had accumulated in the period of
its youth, and when the fruit is mature, the vegetable, if it is annual, is reduced
to a dry skeleton, and if it is perennial, sinks into the repose of winter, to re-
cover its forees and recommence, the following year, its providential function.

The subject under consideration, besides the questions of detail which I pro-
posed to examine, contains a great truth with which I shall conclude, namely,
that our world does not suffice for itself, because it is deficient in force; but it
receives this from the sun, diffused upon it in the form of rays. And it is by
virtue of this:action that life on the globe is transmitted under two antagonis-
tie forms—vegetable life, which accumulates force by creating organic matter,
and animal lite, which consumes and dissipates that which the sun furnishes,
that which vegetables absorb and treasure up.

EXTRACT OF A MEMOIR

ON THE

PRESERVATION OF COPPER AND IRON IN SALT WATER,

BY M. BECQUEREL.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Navy DEPARTMENT,
8 Washington, Aprtl 20, 1865.
Dear Sir: The protection of the bottoms of iron vessels from corrosion by sea water, and
from fouling with animal and vegetable matter, is one of the subjects referred by this Depart-
ment to the National Academy of Sciences for examination and report. I need not enlarge
upon its paramount importance. A memoir by M Becquerel, on this subject, in the first
number of the fifty-ninth volume of the Comptes Rendus, has recently attracted my notice,
and I think the publication of it in English may be serviceable by calling the attention of

' professed chemists and other systematic experimentalists to the strictly scientific treatment

of the question.
I have the pleasure, therefore, to send you the accompanying translation, which I should
be happy to see preserved and widely circulated in the pages of your valuable reports.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
C. H. DAVIS,
Rear-Admiral, and Chief of Bureau of Navigation.
Prof. JoSeEPpH Henry, LL. D.,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

Tue preservation of metals at sea, especially of copper and iron, has in our
time become a vital question on account of the transformation of the navies of
all nations; a transformation suited to bring about a change in their mutual

.relations. Since this question falls within the province of the physico-chemical

sciences, I have considered it my duty to give it particular attention, with
the hope of adding by my own eflorts some new data in aid of its solution to
those which we already possess.

This question presents great difficulties, proceeding from numerous causes
which contribute to the alteration of metals. All these causes, whether me-
chanical, physical, or chemical, exercise an influence over chemical action, and
consequently over the production of electricity, which gives rise to isolated
voltaic couples. They can only be effectually controlled by the closest investi-
gation and by contending, so to speak, with each of them singly.

Finding it impossible to communicate the whole of my labors to the Academy,
I shall confine myself to laying before it a concise abstract of the principal results
of my investigations, in order that it may get an idea of their whole scope; but,
before doing so, I will cite those results which have already been obtained on the
same subject, and thus make the Academy acquainted with my point of departure.

In a lecture delivered January 22, 1824, before the Royal Society, ( Annales
de Chime et de Physique, t. xxvi, p. 24,) Davy informed his audience that
the rapid change in the copper-sheathing of vessels-of-war, and its unequal
durability, had excited the particular attention of the lords of the admiralty,
who employed him to investigate the means of preserving the sheathing; and
that he immediately undertook a series of researches which led him to the dis-
covery of an important principle, according to which a metal which is electro-
positive in salt water, being converted into an electro-negative, is preserved
from all alteration, at least within certain limits.

192 THE PRESERVATION OF

Davy admitted the theory of contact, that is, the production of electricity
by the contact of two metals, resulting from mutual action, Chemical action,
according to him, only served for the transmission of electricity from one body
to another. This view prevented him from deducing from his discovery con-
sequences which naturally flow from it. His first statement was, that a piece
of zinc of the size of a pea, or of the point of an iron nail, was quite sufficient
to preserve from 40 to 50 square inches of copper wherever placed, and that a
little piece of zine having been fixed on top of a piece of copper, and a much
larger bit of iron below it, and the whole immersed in salt water, the cop-
per not only was preserved on both sides, but the iron also, which, after a
fortnight, had kept its brightness equally as well as the other metal. He con-
cluded from this, at once, that small quantities of zinc, of iron, or of cast-iron,
when placed in contact with the copper-sheathing of vessels, prevented its cor-
rosion. He added, besides, that, since negative electricity could not be regarded
as favorable to animal or vegetable life, because it caused the precipitation of
magnesia upon copper, a substance very prejudicial to land plants, this elee-
tricity ought to help to keep the bottoms of vessels clean.

The lords of the admiralty having furnished him with the means of experi-
menting on a large scale with his mode of preserving the copper-sheathing of
-vessels at Chatham and Portsmouth, he established the following facts :* Sheets
of copper in contact with zine, iron or cast-iron, over 25 or gq/oq part of their
surface, having been exposed for several weeks in the harbor of Portsmouth to
the action of the tide, and their weights having been determined before and
after the experiment, Davy found that when the metallic protector covered a
surface of from =}, to ;4,5 of the copper, neither corrosion nor diminution of the
latter metal took place, but when the ratio was from 5345 to zi the copper under-
went a loss of weight greater in proportion as the protection was smaller. He
considered cast-iron, a substance so readily and cheaply found everywhere, as
the best and the most appropriate for the protection of copper, and as lasting
as long as iron and zine.

The sheets of copper of two small vessels, thus protected, were kept per-
fectly clean for several weeks, as long as the metallic surface of the copper
had remained uncovered; but as soon as the metal was covered with carbonate
of lime and magnesia, plants and insects collected there.

Again, we find the following facts in the Philosophical Transactions of Lon-
don tor 1825, pp. 340 et seq.:

‘*The first experiment of this kind was tried on the Sammarang, of 238 guns, in March,
1824, and which had been coppered three years before in India. When she came into dock
at that time, before she was protected, she was covered with thick green carbonate and sub-
muriate of copper, and with a number of long weeds, principally fuci, and a quantity of
zodphites, adhering to different’ parts of the bottom. For the purpose of protection, Davy
employed cast-iron, equal in surface to about 75 of that of the copper, which was applied in
four masses, two near the stern, two on the bows. She made a voyage to Nova Scotia, and
returned in January, 1825. When she was again brought into dock, there was not the
smallest weed or shell-fish upon the whole of the bottom from a few feet round the stern-pro-
tectors to the lead on her bow. Round the stern-protectors there was a slight adhesion of
rust of iron, and upen this there were some zoéphites of the capillary kind, of an inch and
a half or two inches in length, and a number of minute barnacles, both Lepas unatifera and
Balanus tintinnabulum. Jor a considerable space round the protectors, both on the stern
and bow, the eopper was bight; but the color became green towards the central parts of
the ship; yet even here the rust or verdigris was a light powder, and only small in quan-
tity, and did not adhere, or come off, in scales, and there had been evidently little copper
lost in the voyage.

“The yacht Elizabeth was protected by about +45 part of malleable iron placed in two
masses in the stern. She had been occasionally employed in sailing, and had been some-
times in harbor, during six months. When Davy saw her, at the end of this time, she was
periectly clean, and the copper apparently untouched. Her owner informed him that there

* Philosophical Transactions, 1824; Annales de Chimie et de Physique, t. xxix, p. 187.

COPPER AND IRON IN SALT WATER. 193

never had been the slightest adhesion of either weed or shell-fish to her copper, but that a
few small barnacles had once appeared on the loose oxide of iron in the neighborhood of the
protectors, which, however, were immediately and easily washed off.

‘¢ The Canebrea Castle, a large vessel of upwards of 650 tons, was furnished with four
protectors, two on the stern and two on the bow, equal together to about 7)z of the surface
of the copper. She had been protected more than twelve months, and had made a voyage
to Caleutta and back. She came into the river perfectly bright, and when examined in the
dry dock was found entirely free from any adhesion, ard offered a beautiful and almost pol-
ished surface, and there seemed to be no greater wear of copper than could be accounted for
from mechanical causes.”

It follows from the preceding facts that, whether in sea water or the salt
water of the laboratory, the copper sheets which are at rest in salt water in-
crease in weight by becoming covered with earthy or alkaline deposits when
they are protected by a proportion of iron below +35; and if this proportion be
contained between ;1, and 7,455, the surface seems to be preserved without
receiving either deposits or zodphytes or shells.

It appears that Davy devoted himself to determining the limits on the sur-
face within which the protection takes place, but not at all in the thickness.
He neither takes into account the layer of oxychloride of zine nor of copper,
oxychloride mixed with particles of one of these two metals, which, by op-
posing the reaction of salt water, stops the protection. The whole question
lies there, and Davy studied only the theory of contact. ;

Although several of the preceding experiments have furnished favorable
results, nevertheless the process of protection was not adopted; the reason
assigned for it was the negative condition of cepper, which favored the deposit
of marine bodies to such an extent as to diminish the rate of sailing.

We shall see presently that the deposit of marine bodies was not to be
attributed to this cause, since the major part of the protection had disappeared.
It has been remarked, however, that in order to preserve the copper the pro-
tecting metal must be oxidized. He had such a strong belief in this theory
that he asserted that a piece of zinc of the size of a pea, or the point of an iron
nail, was suflicient to protect copper plates of 256 to 320 square centimetres of
surface, immersed in sea water; this preservation could last only for a short
period, as the piece of zinc, or the point of a small iron nail, was rapidly de-
stroyed. There is, withal, in this nothing to inform us whether, in the means
of preservation employed at sea, a thought was given to the disadvantages
resulting from the destruction of the oxidable metal; it is not, therefore, aston-
ishing that the copper-sheathing became foul, to use the seaman’s phrase, and
was covered with organic bodies. In addition to the above, it is the same with
regard to the production of electricity for preserving copper or iron at sea as
with regard to the production of heat; in the latter case it is necessary to keep
up the supply of the combustible material, and in the former to provide for the
replacement of the oxidable metal according as it is destroyed; this is an indis-
pensable precaution to secure its preservation.

The causes of change in metals are numerous. We will cite particularly the
heterogeneousness of parts : the difference in the mode of aggregation of particles,
the presence of any bodies whatever on the surface of metals, of grains of sand
for example, or spots of rust, strokes of the hammer falling here or there, pres-
sure, a simple fold or corrugation, &c., are so many causes which give rise to
voltaic couples on the surface, and which destroy a protection otherwise suitably
selected. The friction of water must still be added, as M. Ed. Becquerel has
shown in the interesting experiments which he repeated at Toulon, while aiding
me in my investigations.

From this it may be seen why it is that metals like iron, that are forged,
wrought, and hammered, present so many causes of change, which are removed
by means of protectors, arranged according to electro-chemical principles. This
explains, what experiment proves, why it is that the electrical condition of the
protected metal does not always follow a regular law.

18 s

194 THE PRESERVATION OF

IT have been guided in my researches by an important consideration, which T
will here mention: it has been discovered, that in order to decompose one mil-
ligramme of water, it was necessary to employ in the form of a current a quan-
tity of free electricity equal to that of 20,000 batteries, each of one square metre
of surface, and charged in such a way as to give out sparks flying more than
one centimetre in length. This is the quantity supposed to be combined with
the substance and which becomes free on the decomposition of one milligramme
of water, or which experiences some kind of transformation, either by becom-
ing heat or by being changed into a vis-viva, of which I have tried to deter-
mine the effects in the cases under consideration. This much is certain, that but
an exceedingly small portion of the enormous quantity of the electricity capable
of producing the effects of thunder is collected ; but before arriving at this de-
termination I have investigated with the utmost minuteness, by means of the
compass of sines and suitably arranged apparatus, the electro-motive force of
zine as well as that of iron, of copper, of lead, and their alloy, plunged in sea-
water, which forces beara relation to the developed affinities and naturally serve
as starting points for finding the protecting metal or alloy; this latter acting
only with etliciency when the negative condition of the protected metal, which
is derived, is superior to that which it assumes when it is attacked by salt
water. I subsequently determined the electrical condition of all the compo-
nents of a protected metal in order to see what became of the vis-viva, of which
I have just spoken, and to discover the laws upon which it will be necessary
to rely to secure protection. My mode of proceeding was as follows:

When a copper plate 5 metres in length and 6 centimetres in width, con-
taining a surface of 3,000 square centimetres, and armed at one of its extremi-
ties with a very small band of zinc one centimetre square, and furnished at short
distances with vertical rods of the same metal and other details, is plunged into
sea water, it will be found that from the zinc to the other extremity of the plate
the electrical condition of each point of the latter gradually diminishes, and
if the curve of the intensities be traced, by taking for the axis of the ab-
scissas a line which represents the electro-motive force of copper, for the abscis-
sas themselves the distances to the zinc, and for ordinates the corresponding
electrical conditions, this curve will appear to have the axis of the abscissas
for its asymptote, showing that it cannot be determined how far the protection
extends. ‘I'he whole surface of the copper retains its brightness, with the ex-
ception of the part on the side of the zinc to a distance of about one or one and
a half metres, which becomes covered with earthy metallic deposits when the salt
water is not pure. In another experiment made at sea, the law has been veri-
fied to about fourteen metres. It is evident, therefore, that in the oxidation of
the zinc the electricity which ceases to be united with the substance, and which
is enormous in amount, acts as a living force, when it is transmitted to the eop-
per at distances the precise limits of which are not known. We must not for-
get here to observe that there are in circulation over the whole metallic surface,
by means of the liquid which moistens it, derived currents which produce elec-
tro-chemical decompositions, and which are created at the expense of the elec-
tricity disengaged in the oxidation of the zine.

‘Hence we pereeive, that if we wish to protect a copper surface in sucha
manner as to avoid electro-chemical deposits, we must arm the surface with a
metallic protector having an electro-motive force equal to that of the point where
these deposits begin to be insensible; this is an important condition to fulfil in
order to prevent deposits of shells and other marine bodies, which seem to be
formed on parts already covered with limestone, magnesia, and other substances.

Copper plates armed with iron, and iron plates protected by zinc, present
similar effects, with the slight difference that the sphere of electric action is less,
it being understood that its extent depends on the difference between the elec-
tro-motive forces of the protecting and the protected metal.

>

COPPER AND IRON IN SALT WATER. 195.

One can hardly form an idea of the slight space which it is sufficient to give to
the zine and to the iron in order to produce on the metals which they are pro-
tecting the effects we have just mentioned; thus the quantity of metal needed
to protect the iron of an armed vessel becomes insignificant.

The protecting alloys of zine and copper, of zine and lead, &c., act, in pro-
* portion to the more oxidable metal which enters into their composition, with
certain conditions of hardness, to which regard is to be paid. With an alloy
of copper and zinc, the protecting power diminishes, according as this last metal
is oxidized and carried off, when there remains finally nothing but a copper
sponge, which is soon changed into oxychloride; the greater the hardness of
the alloy the slower the production of the effects here mentioned.

The experiments of which the principal results have been stated had to be
repeated in the open sea. The minister of marine, fully appreciating their im-
portance, was kind enough to put at my disposal in the harbor of 'Toulon all
the necessary means for making these experiments. I cannot sufficiently thank
him, as well as M. Dupuy de Léme, the latter particularly, on account of the
useful information which he so kindly furnished me in respect to what con-
cerns the applications of my experiments. I also thank MM. the naval engi-
neers for their co-operation, and M. de Mouy, sub-engineer, who, having followed
my experiments with attention, will be able to repeat them. The experiments
have been made on a large scale and have not left any doubt as to the accuracy
of the results obtained in the laboratory, and have enabled me moreover to
make new observations, which are of interest in applying the experiments. I must
mention here some observations which ought to be taken into consideration.

Whenever the iron plating is covered with several coats of red lead, it is
preserved as long as the paint lasts; but as soon as it is partially removed,
either by friction or by the dissolving action of the sea, which is slow, the
metal begins to be attacked at different places; those parts which have lost paint
are negatived relatively to those which preserve less of it, or none at all; so that
these last suffer more than the others. rom the above causes spring those local
changes seattered occasionally over the surface of the plating, which will be easily
avoided by the employment of protectors, disposed according to principles here
laid down—protectors which will not come into use until the paint is carried off.

The copper sheathing of the bottom which is not painted, being in the same
condition as that of the old vessels, will be exposed to the same disadvantages,
unless it be protected not only with a view to its preservation, but still more
for preventing deposits of earths and other matters, which seem to favor deposits
of shells, mollusks, and marine plants, which it is said do not occur as long as
the surface continues bright.

All the parts constituting the sheathing and the armor have been so well ad-
justed by M. Dupuy de Lome, that it will be quite easy without disturbing
anything to apply the protectors in such a manner as to clean the former or
change them as need be.

It will even be possible, when the vessel is on the point of leaving the basin
to enter the harbor, with the aid of apparatus I constructed for this purpose, to
see if all metallic parts are completely protected, or in case they are not, to
discover the amount of change. ;

Such are the general results arrived at during the long investigations con-
ducted either in the laboratory or in sea water upon the means to be used for
preserving the metals employed for the plating and sheathing of iron-clads, and
for preventing deposits of shells and other marine bodies. .

It is quite impossible for me in this extract to enter into details concerning
the measures to be taken for the preservation of metals, an account of which
is given in this memoir; it is sufficient for me to say, that the general principles
appear to be well established, and that the only questions still waiting their
solution are those which relate to the application of these principles in detail.

PRESERVATION OF WOOD.

TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY C. A. ALEXANDER, FROM THE LEIPZIG “‘AUS DER ~
NATUR. U. S. W.”

TE increased consumption of wood, more especially in the construction of
railroads, has rendered the question of a future supply one of no little interest.
Its importance, however, results not so much from the quantity employed in con-
struction, great as that certainly is, as from the rapid decay of the sills of rail-
roads and the consequent necessity of frequent renewal. A resort to the harder
kinds of wood in place of the softer was an obvious and early expedient; but
little is thereby gained, for the former also harbor within themselves the germ
of destruction, and under the influences of the atmosphere pass speedily through
the stages of decomposition. _ :

Of course this process is more rapid in certain kinds of wood, and is the
effect of a greater proportion of cellular tissue containing nitrogen. It is to
this that wood, exposed alternately to moisture and dryness, owes its decay,
because the proteine substances, as the nitrogenous combinations are called, pass
into fermentation, develop carbonic acid, and thus produce the gradual decom-
position of the mass, although the secoud chief constituent of wood, the so-
called cellulose, is in itself unalterable, and resists all destructive influences.
The more proteine, therefore, contained in the wood, the more easily and earlier
does it undergo decomposition.

Railroad sills of oak were found to last longer than those of softer wood, yet
even these, though chosen with care, sufficed but for some ten years’ service, and
then for the most part required to be renewed. But through the exclusive use of
oak for this purpose, it was soon observed that the forests were becoming thinned
beyond all hope of restoration, and that the price of this wood had advanced to
a most inconvenient extent. These annually increasing disadvantages have had
the effect of directing inquiry to the practicability of replacing, for many differ-
ent purposes, the use of wood by that of other materials, chiefly stone and iron;
but for the sills of railroads this substitution has not been found toanswer. Here,
therefore, it was necessary to think of other means for prolonging the duration
of wood, or at least for communicating to the soft woods, of which our forests
are chiefly composed, a degree of durability which should qualify them to supply
the place of the harder kinds.

Plans for the conservation of wood are just as little as the wasting of the
forests an incident of yesterday or to-day. As early as the reign of Charles
II, of England, Lord Caernarvon had said, “ Wood is an outgrowth of the earth
which nature provided for the payment of our debts,” and the first proposal for
the preservation of wood by chemical means dates from that period. Of this
the celebrated Dutch chemist, Glauber, was the author. ‘'T'wo other proposed
methods date from the last century, and since the beginning of the present a
great number have been brought forward. All those heretofore devised, and
which have had in view chiefly the preservation of railroad sills, depend—

1. On the abstraction of water from the wood before using it;

2. On the elimination of the ingredients of the sap;

3. On the chemical alteration of those ingredients;

4. On the mineralization of the wood.

Of the various proposals for this purpose we can here notice only those which

PRESERVATION OF WOOD. 197

have obtained a certain notoriety. Among these may be classed that of Kyan,
who proposed to steep the wood in a solution of chloride of mercury, or to press
the latter into it. So strongly had this method been recommended that the
building of the Leipsic-Dresden railroad was deemed a suitable occasion for put-
ting it to the proof. 'The superstructure of this road was formed, after the former
' American system, of long wooden sills, strengthened by cross-ties, with iron
rails attached, and these sills it was proposed to protect from decay by treating
them in Kyan’s much-extolled manner, with an infusion of chloride ef mercury.
The experiment, however, yielded a most unfavorable result. In the tirst place,
the cost exceeded all expectation, amounting in the case of hard wood to $1,500
per mile, and in that of soft to as much again. Moreover, the solution had
penetrated the hard wood to the depth of but two or three lines, and hence the
protection was highly problematical. It is true that by frequent treatment or
by pressure a complete penetration of the wood might have been effected, but
in that case the expense would have certainly countervailed every advantage.
In England the same experiment has been tried with several railroads, and also
with the pins used in the wooden pavements of London. 'Thesills of the London
and Birmingham railroad were entirely decayed in three years, while those of the
Great Western road, after six years, were still fresh and sound. These different
results are attributable to the different modes of impregnation and to the con-
tents of the respective liquids. The pins of the London pavement were found,
after forty-six months, to be totally decayed.

Dr. Boucherie, of Paris, has acquired much repute for his method of preserv-
ing wood by means of copper vitriol, an expedient to which he was determined
by long and sedulous experiment. So favorable were the results that, in 1856,
after seven years’ experience, large contracts were made with him for the im-
pregnation of the sills of railroads and posts of telegraphs. In considera-
tion of important public services thus rendered, the jury of the great industrial
exhibition of Paris, in 1855, on the concurrent recommendation of two sections,
awarded to Dr. Boucherie a large medal, while the public authorities, on the
same grounds, extended his patent five years beyond the limited time. The
basis, as well as the scientific principle of his procedure, is supplied by the as-
sumption of the circulation of the vegetable sap, the existence of the cellular
tissue, and of tubes within the plank through which this cireulation is conducted.
The second postulate is the possibility of displacing the sap and substituting a
fluid possessing preservative properties.

In 1838, Dr. Boucherie obtained a patent for a process which depended en-
tirely on the circulation of the sap. Upon this first system, a tree with its full
garniture of boughs and leaves was sawed off, and its lower end sunk perpen-
dicularly in the fluid, which thus ascended with the sap to the top of the tree.
This process, though satisfactory in a scientific point of view, was not adapted
to practical use. It remained to discover some means of causing the conserva-
tive fluid to penetrate intu the felled tree without recourse to the natural cireu-
lation of the sap. Repeated experiments showed that it was practicable, by a
high pressure, to expel completely the watery particles which remain for some
time in the cells of felled trees, and to replace them by some other fluid. The
problem was thus narrowed to the determination of a suitable fluid, and the
application of a cheap and practical method of expelling the sap and introdu-
cing its substitute. é

After employing, experimentally, various antiseptic substances, Dr. Boucherie
obtained the most satisfactory results with a solution of the sulphate of copper
(copper vitriol) in water. This substance, when introduced, is destined to a
two-told purpose—to expelthe sap, which is the cause of decomposition, and to
fix itself in the wood.

A small portion of the sap adhering to the inner walls of the cells is required
for the fixation of the sulphate of copper; a combination of the two forms a
covering which withstands external action, whether in the air, the earth, or the

198 PRESERVATION OF WOOD.

water. Of this fact ocular proof may be had, if, by means of strong hy-
draulic pressure, we drive the albuminous substances from a stick of wood and
prepare it after the prescribed manner. The vitriolic solution which is received
at the end of the wood, where it flows out, possesses the same properties as atits
introduction; there has been, therefore, little or no intermediate action. For
every sort of wood there is a certain degree of pressure under which the prep-

aration yields the best results. Nor is the strength of the vitriolic solution of
~ Jess consequence than the force of the pressure: too weak, the effects are cor-
respondent, unless much time is allowed for the preparation; by to> great con-
centration, on the other hand, we injure the absorbing vessels of the cellular
tissue, and the preparation becomes difficult, if not impossible ; the wood in this
case may be said to be scorched and corroded by the acids. The proportion
recommended is a solution of one pound of the sulphate of copper in one hun-
dred pounds of water. The water to be used for this purpose must be pure
and as free as possible from calcareous salts.

All kinds of wood are not suitable for this impregnation. Certain kinds
have isolated parts, where the sap is arrested, and no passage is allowed for
the solution. In the oak, for example, the sap only is penetrable, while the
pith resists penetration. The beech even, which is highly adapted to impreg-
nation, often shows, near the pith, a red portion, in which the sap becomes in-
spissated and allows no passage. The birch and yoke elm admit of easy and
thorough preparation, provided the age of the former be not more than forty
nor that of the latter more than one hundred years. The pine, the linden, the
plane, the service tree, the elm, and the aspen are well adapted to this purpose.
In all trees the sap is the part most susceptible of impregnation, and this part,
which is usually considered as unserviceable in constructions, the process of
Dr. Boucherie renders fit for employment. The same is the case with many
kinds of wood which grow in wet grounds, whose affluence in albuminous sub-
stances would, without such preparation, subject them to rapid decay.

For the success of the proposed method, it is indispensable that the juices of
the tree should possess their full degree of fluidity, so as to yield readily to the
pressure by which the preservative liquid is introduced. From the 1st of Sep-
tember, in many countries, but in general from the 15th of that month onward,
the vegetable activity diminishes, the leaf changes color and soon falls. * At
this period the sap becomes thinner, circulates with more facility, and yields so
much the more readily to the antiseptic liquid. Trees felled in September,
October, and November may await preparation for a longer time, in proportion
as they were later cut. ‘he more advanced the season, the less is the tendency
of the sap to coagulate and obstruct the vessels of the cellular tissue. In trees
felled in October this condition scarcely supervenes before the end of November,
while in those severed in January, February, and March, provided the boughs
be left entire, the fluidity of the sap continues till the end of May. In general
the sap of standing trees attains its highest degree of tenacity from the middle
of April to the beginning of June; trees felled at this season, which is the most
unfavorable, admit only of difficult and imperfect preparation. During the
following months of June, July, and August the process should be applied
within eight days from the felling of the tree, else the dryness, which promotes
coagulation in the still otherwise tenacious sap, will tend to embarrass the upe-
ration and in some cases render it very impertect. As a general rule it may be
assumed that the most favorable epoch for the impregnation of wood is that in
which the felling is generally considered as advantageous.

At whatever time the impregnation may be undertaken, it is always of great
importance to select the soundest and straightest timber, and such generally as
had not begun to decay and is free from clefts. The antiseptic liquid, on its
introduction into the wood, will take the course where it meets with least
obstruction, and if faults like those mentioned exist, will find through the
yielding or divided parts a channel of escape.

PRESERVATION OF WOOD. 199

iT.

The measures above recommended must be observed if the subsequent steps
are expected to result in success. We proceed now to describe the arrange-
ments for conducting the process, which are very simple, and shall confine our-
selves in the main to those intended for the preparation of railroad sills, merely
noticing any differences which may exist in the case of materials intended for
other purposes.

All the logs designed for sills should be cut into pieces whose length so far
exceeds that of a double sill as to admit of the renewal, at the time of the
operation, of the surfaces at the ends of the pieces where the sap soonest grows
dense and obstructs the passage of the injected fluid. For this excess a length
of 30’ is enough if the tree, especially in hot weather, be felled but few days
before the preparation. ‘To arrange the place of operation, we lay on a surface
properly levelled four beams parallel to one another, with an inclination of
za in the direction of their length, which length should be such that at least
twenty logs may be placed across the beams at an average distance of 2’ 6 from
one another.

Along the outer beams channelled logs or troughs should be laid for the pur-
pose of receiving the liquid as it escapes from the ends of the sill-pieces; and
the two inner beams must be placed at such a distance from the middle line
of the whole construction as to leave between them sufficient room for a channel
destined to receive a leaden pipe, which connects with the vessel containing the
vitriolic solution. ‘This pipe is furnished with copper taps at distances of 2’ 6”,
corresponding with the middle of the sills which are to be impregnated. The
fluid, which passes through the sills and falls into the channels provided for
that purpose, is conveyed by them into a receptacle below the level of the gen-
eral stage of operations, whence it may be drawn by a pump, and, if needed
for further use, filtered and restored to its original strength.

The impregnating fluid is contained in three vessels, which are stationed on
a platform, at least 25’ high in the middle of the works, and which are furnished
with faucets, issuing a little above the bottom of the vessels, in order that im-
purities may have room to settle below the vent. Each of these faucets com-
municates by means of an India-rubber tube with the leaden pipe, which ter-
minates at the sides of the vessels in three branches. Near at hand is a pump
to supply the water required for the solution. Of the three vessels, one is de-
signed to feed the leaden distributing pipe; the second receives the water raised
by the pump, or the fluid that has been already once used; in the third, the
prepared fluid is allowed to rest, that impurities may be deposited. This last
vessel is connected with the distributing pipe as soon as the first is emptied.

The logs to be impregnated are laid upon the beams and wedged, so that
their ends shall be perpendicular over the channelled logs or troughs, and their
direction at right angles with the beams, Whatever may have been the lapse
of time since the felling of the trees, the end surfaces of the logs should be re-
newed, that the injected fluid may more readily pass through, besides that the
requisite length may thus be given to the material. Everything being thus
arranged, an incision is made with a saw in the middle of each log to the depth
of ;*, of the vertical section in soft, and still deeper in hard woods. By means
of a jack-screw the middle of each logis then slightly raised, whereby the incision
will be opened, and not far from this incision, in each half of the log, a hole is
bored obliquely from the external surface of the log through the face of the in-
cision, which must be carefully freed from any chips or saw-dust. In the inci-
sion we now lay a ring of cord or rope, the outer circumference of which must
exactly correspond with that of the log; but, while thus preparing to close the
opening, care should be taken that the ring do sot descend too deep into the

200 PRESERVATION OF WOOD.

wood and obstruct unnecessarily some of the tubes destined to convey the anti-
septic fluid. . : ‘

The screw by which the middle of the log was raised being now withdrawn,
the log of course sinks, the two side walls of the incision approach, pressing
together the included cordage, the circuit of the opening is completely closed,
and thus an artificial reservoir is formed in the midst of the piece which is to
be impregnated.

Into the hole, bored as above directed, a tube of hard wood is driven, and is
fastened to one of India-rubber which has been previously adjusted to the cop-
per taps of the leaden pipe, thus establishing a communication between the
small reservoir in the middle of the log and the distributing apparatus. During
the preliminary steps, the India-rubber tube is closely compressed by means of
a hand-serew, but when, at the commencement of the process, this is removed,
the impregnating fluid flows into the reservoir prepared for it in the log, and

‘drives the sap before it through the pressure exerted by the fluid in the vessel
which feeds the supply tube. Under favorable circumstances this effect is
instantaneously manifested by an exudation at the end of the log, which pres-
ently changes into drops, and falls into the channel provided for it. ‘To remove
any included air which might interfere with the process, a small hole should be
made with a copper pin through the cord enveloping the incision, which must
be closed with the stroke of a hammer as soon as the fluid begins to issue. It
will also greatly promote success, if in the course of the operation the incision
be occasionally well cleansed, and again closed with the same care as at first.

The sap, which at first issues pure, becomes more and more mixed with the
vitriolic solution as the process approaches its termination. When this mix-
ture shows 3° (its normal strength being 1°) the penetration of the wood may
be regarded as complete, and for pieces of the length of a railroad sill, the time
in which this result is reached may vary from 48 to 100 hours; all pieces
which, after the lapse of the latter period, do not exhibit in the centre of the
end-surface a readily distinguishable impregnation, must be turned, and the
operation conducted in the opposite direction.

For the preparation of longer pieces, such as telegraph poles, building ma-
terials, &c., in which the difficulties are greater, it will be useful to observe the
following precautions: 1. To place the vessel which contains the solution
higher, in order to increase the pressure. 2. ‘To cleanse the imbibing surfaces
oftener, with a view to remove impurities which may gather upon them. 3. To
elutriate the fluid more frequently.

The arrangements for operating are like those above described, with the ex-
ception that here but two beams, laid parallel to one another at a distance cor-
responding to the length of the pieces, and with an inclination of 1 to 8, are
required; the introduction of the solution will take place only at that end
which shall give it the same direction with the natural sap; the artificial res-
ervior ,constructed and closed as before described, will be near the but-end of the
log, and the surface of the incision next to this extremity should be covered
with a sheet of copper to prevent the penetration and escape of the impregna-
ting fluid through the shorter section,

The acceleration of the process depends on the kind of wood, the season at
which it is cut, and the effective pressure employed. Apart from these, the
rapidity of impregnation may be assumed as proportional directly to the pres-
sure and inversely to the diameter and the square of the length. Moist winds
and snow hasten the process; dry winds and great aridity retard it; frost alto-
gether arrests it.

This mode of preparation has been tried and approved by a number of the
railroad and telegraph administrations of France. In 1856 more than 400,000
cross-ties thus prepared had been laid on the North road, 8,000 of the number
having been deposited as early as 1846. In the former year these latter were

PRESERVATION OF WOOD : 201

found to be as sound as they were the day they were laid, and this remarkable
preservation, which they still manifest, leaves no room to conjecture the possible
extent of their duration.

Expensive apparatus has been sometimes employed for the purpose in ques-
tion; as, for instance, an air-pump, operated by a steam-engine, to exhaust the
air from the wood, and thus facilitate the penetration of the metallic solution.
Powerful hydraulic presses have also been used to promote this result. Such
costly contrivances, however, may be wholly dispensed with. Biittner and
Wohring, of Dresden, among others, have proposed a process which is at once
practical and cheap, and which quickly attains the desired end; their method
has been consequently introduced in the case of several Saxon, Austrian, and
other roads.

This method consists, as regards its chief feature, in the exhaustion of the air
from the vessels of the wood—a condition indispensable to arapid and thorough
impregnation, not by mechanical forces, but exclusively by those of temper-
ature. The whole operation is, in fact, conducted on this principle, the wooden
sills being boiled for the space of an hour in a solution of metallic salts, and
then left to cool undisturbed in the same until the temperature has sunk to 40°
R. The physico-chemical process is here as follows: Through the heating of
the wood to more than 100°, not only are the included gases but also the ex-
tractive substances expelled, the escape of the former being made manifest,
throughout the operation, by the rising of large air bubbles, and the separation
of the latter by a viscous substance floating on the surface of the solution and
indicating even by its scent its vegetable origin. The wood, as it cools, being
surrounded by the solution, rapidly absorbs it to supply the vacuity occasioned
by the expulsion of air—an effect which is aided by the pressure of the atmo.
sphere on the liquid surface exposed to it.

That the hot way for the impregnation of wood is decidedly preferable to
any cold method of preservation would seem to result from the law that all
organic chemical combinations are more certainly obtained in that way; be-
sides that the contingency of protracted rains, which, in the cold process, some-
times wash away the metallic salts, is thereby avoided. At the same time,
through the heat and vapor pervading the wood, a coagulation of the albumen
may be occasioned, which probably, even without the intervention of the metal-
lic salt, would of itself impart a preservative quality to the wood; for, as has
been already said, the decomposition is to be solely ascribed to the ingredients
of the vegetable sap, while the vegetable fibre in its simple state not only
withstands the influence of the weather, but remains impassive under the sharpest
reagents.

After persistent boiling for an hour and a half the heat will be found to have
thoroughly penetrated the sill, and the highest rarefaction of the included air to
have been attained; consequently the capacity of absorption will have also
reached its highest point, which is estimated at 14 cubic foot = 62 pounds of the
solution for a piece of wood of 2 cubic foot contents. It has been determined
by many experiments that this is to be regarded as the maximum of absorption,
which will not be increased even if the boiling be continued for several hours.
Asacubic foot, = 50 pounds of the solution, is sufficient, therefore, for the preser-
vation of a sill of pine wood, and its absorption is effected in one hour’s boiling
and from six to seven hours’ cooling, it is apparent that the same apparatus may
be twice used within twenty-four hours for the proposed operation. :

The apparatus in use on the government railroad of Saxony consists, in the
main, of a boiler of 10 horse-power, exerting a tension of two atmospheres,
with a provision of four pine-wood receptacles, each 114 feet high and 8 wide,
for every boiler of the above description. The steam is conducted through an
inch-wide tube from the boiler to the bottom of the receptacle, and traverses
the latter through a tube of like width provided with small holes. The pieces

202 PRESERVATION OF WOOD.

of wood to be impregnated are placed perpendicularly in the receptacle, with
the larger end downwards, that the solution may ascend in the direction fol-
lowed by the natural sap; a cover furnished with some openings, and well
secured, is then applied, and first the solution and afterwards the steam ad-
mitted; the heating of the solution will thus be effected within two hours. It
is to be observed that, as the volume of the solution is increased about one-fifth
by the condensation of the admitted vapor, a proportional quantity of the metallic
salt should be added to each receptacle to restore the reduced strength. Hach
of the receptacles is calculated to receive 40 railroad sills, of which 160 may
therefore be prepared by such an apparatus as that above described within
twenty-four hours.

Tt.

The chemical processes which take place in the impregnation of wood with
the copper vitriol have been explained by Kénig, of Dresden, through experi-
ments made chiefly with pine wood. As regards the question whether the wood
forms a chemical combination with the vitriol or one of its ingredients, he found
that the oxide of copper, as well as the sulphate, is taken up by the wood, and
that after washing the wood with water a saline base remains behind. If wood
thus impregnated be closely observed, it is seen, from the green tincture of par-
ticular spots, that the metallic salt is deposited between the yearly rings of the
wood in the less solid parts, and hence in those chiefly filled with sap. It has
been further observed that wood abounding in resin takes up much more of the
copper-salt than that which is deficient in it—oak wood, for instance, being
scarcely stained by the solution. The woody fibre would seem, therefore, to
have little or nothing to do with fixing the saline principle; it has been shown,
indeed, that pure fibre—chemically prepared cotton, for example—does not
combine with it in the slightest degree, but yields it up entirely through repeated
washings. If, by treatment with alcohol, we obtain wood wholly free from
resinous constituents and attempt to impregnate it, no color is communicated as
in the case of resinous woods, and, by slight washing, the salt is removed. By
evaporation of the alcoholic solution we obtain, under the form of a resinate, a
greenish residuum containing resin and oxide of copper. It results from these
interesting observations that the elements of the copper-vitriol are fixed in the
wood through the medium of its resin.

If, with a view to a satisfactory determination of the question whether other
ingredients of the wood may not co-operate in the fixation of the metallic salt,
we examine the same wood before and after impregnation, it will be found that
the impregnated wood contains less nitrogen, and that it is even possible,
through continued treatment of the wood with the vitriolic solution, wholly to
extract its nitrogenous constituents; these will be discovered in the solution.
In this we find an explanation of the fact that impregnated wood resists decay
longer than wood not thus prepared.

The preservation of wood by means of copper-vitriol depends, under all cir-
cumstances, upon the condition that the compound resulting from the union
of the copper and resin should more or less completely fill the pores of the
wood and invest the woody fibre, thus preventing the access of oxygen, and at
the same time repelling the attacks of insects. These facts agree with the
results realized in practice. It has been found that soft wood of loose structure
lasts after impregnation longer than more solid wood, in conformity with the
before-cited experiments, which show that the nitrogenous constituents are more
ey discharged by the copper-vitriol from soft than from hard and heavy
wood.

: The experiments of Kénig furnish, however, the mode in which the vitriolic
lmpregnation may be most advantageously effected. With thin wood it is

?-

PRESERVATION OF WOOD. 203

sufficient, in order to extract the albuminous substances, to let it lie for some
time, frequently moving the pieces, in a vitriolic solution of 1 to 2 per cent.
Thicker wood must be treated with the heated solution in wooden or sfone ves-
sels, (since metal ones would be attacked by the metallic salt,) or be impreg-
nated in the manner precribed by Boucherie. Konig thinks that when some-
times the experiment does not lead to the desired result, the failure is at-
tributable to the mere steeping of the wood without allowing time for lixivia-
tion, and the consequent discharge of unfavorable elements, which is the indis-
pensable condition of success.

The preparation with copper-vitriol has been attended with satisfactory
results in the case of several German railroads. In May, 1849, a commission
of Prussian engineers examined the pine wood cross-ties which had been laid
on the Berlin and Stettin road in 1841 and 1842. Here the impregnated and
unimpregnated pieces lay close together. ‘The latter were in general wholly
decayed, while the former were in good preservation and still gave promise of
long duration. .

In England the chloride of zinc, which is much cheaper, has been proposed,
and with highly favorable indications as regards the result. ‘This process has
been iried on the Hanoverian railroads, and it was found that sills which had
lain for six years in the ground'were still fresh and sound. Upon examination
by Wohler, it was stated that the chloride of zinc had penetrated, as well in
oak as beech wood, deep into the material. From external indications this
would not appear to be the case, yet here deception should be guarded against.
In the oak wood chiefly a dark tint had spread to the depth of 1 inch to 14,
and it was thence concluded that the chloride of zinc had penetrated thus far;
but this proceeded probably from a dark-colored deposit produced by the action
of the tannin of the wood on the sides of the iron vessel. The mineral imparts,
in general, no color to the wood, and chemical analysis remains the only means
of determining its presence.

The greatest quantity of zinc was found in the beech wood, and in this
respect no difference appeared in that which had and that which had not been
steamed. With the oak it was otherwise, that which had not been steamed
_ showing a much smaller proportion of the metal. Still poorer in zine was the
beech steeped in zinc-vitriol, and poorest the unsteamed oak treated in the
same way. In the latter, therefore, steaming would seem indispensable, for
only by a thorough penetration of the metallic solution can decay be perma-
nently averted.

Recently a solution of the oxide of zine in wood-vinegar has been proposed,
and more lately still the chloride of manganese, which is produced in great
quantity in the manufacture of chloride of lime, and as an incidental product is
of little exchangeable value. The free acid is here saturated with lime or with °
oxide of zinc.

In North America, wood, especially that intended for ship-building, is salted,
as with us flesh and vegetables are cured for longer preservation. ‘This method
can scarcely be recommended in our own practice, since, however calculated
to prevent the so-called voz, the prices which we pay under a monopoly place
the article beyond our reach, considering the quantity necessary to be used. It
takes, for instance, for a brig of 6,000 cwt. burden, not less than 1,600 ewt. of
common salt, and that is with us quite a capital. The salt might be replaced,
indeed, by the mother-water of the salt-works, since great efficacy is attributed
to the chloride of magnesium contained therein, which, in a chemical point of
view, is very similar to the chloride of zinc. \

It seems highly probable from the experiments of Konig that all these solu-
tions of different kinds of salts, as far as they have succeeded in practice, act
like the vitriol of copper upon the albuminous substances of the wood, and in
like manner extract them therefrom.

204 PRESERVATION OF WOOD.

H. Vohl, of Bonn, recommends the so-called kreosote (coal-tar oil) for the
preservation of wood. This kreosote consists for the most part of an ethereal
oil, with which small quantities of true kreosote and carbolic acid (phenylic acid)
are mixed. Its practical examination is easy, requiring only that the oil should
be mixed in a graduated cylinder with some ten per cent. of a strong alkaline
lixivium, well shaken, and then left to settle. The liquid will separate into
three distinct portions, the lower of which is purely an alkaline lye; the middle,
which is brown, and of the consistency of sirup, contains the kreosote and
carbolie acid; and the upper consists of the ethereal oil. As the volume of the
substances employed is known, the quantity of kreosote and ecarbolie acid is
easily determined. Since it is in these that the virtue of the impregnating oil
resides, this criterion seems well adapted for determining the relative value of
the latter. It has been stated that the coal-tar oil, received as well from Eng-
land as from Belgium and France, contains a maximum of from eight to ten per
cent. of kreosote and carbolie acid, whereas the preparation obtained from the
photogenic manufacture is much richer in these constituents.

The presence of much ethereal oil in the fluid obstructs the absorption of the
latter by the wood, and an eligible method for the preparation is to treat the
kreosote with an alkaline lye, until, without being decomposed, any desirable
quantity of water may be mixed with it; a certain proportion of the oil is sepa-
rated, which is to be decanted from the mixture. The alkaline solution of kre-
osote, which, after the dilution, has a specific weight of 1.05 in relation to water,
is applied by spreading it on the wood. When this application is absorbed,
which soon takes place, the operation is repeated until the wood is sufficiently
impregnated. Were the wood thus prepared exposed to the weather, a great
part of the kreosote would be washed away ; hence Vohl employs, for the fixa-
tion of the kreosote, a weak solution of the sulphate of iron, (iron-vitriol.) The
sulphate of the vitriol neutralizes the alkaline menstruum of the kreosote, and
this, now become free, attaches itself to the substance of the woody fibre. The
precipitated oxide of iron, which entered together with the kreosote, is» con-
verted gradually into a hydrate of iron, at the expense of the atmospheric oxy-
gen contained in the wood. The sulphate of soda (glauber salts) formed there-
with is removed by degrees through the atmospheric moisture. Wood prepared in
this manner, though exposed to every atmospheric alternation, exhibited, at the
end of cight years, no trace of deterioration from decay or fungous formations.

Kreosote has been found of great advantage in the preservation of the rigging
and sails of ships, not only supplying the place of tar, but excelling it in its
beneficial effects. The efficacy of this operation rests on the facility with
which kreosote combines with organic substances treated with lime, such as
skins, leather, &c.; and in view of this the sails and ropes are first passed
through a weak solution of lime and then through a strong tan-bath. The lime
is precipitated through the operation of the tannic acid on the vegetable fibre,
which thus impregnated readily absorbs the kreosote. Vohl observed no rot-
tenness in sails thus prepared, after six years’ exposure to all kinds of weather.
In order to promote the duration of timber used in the construction of bridges,
it has been proposed to protect those parts exposed to moisture and the atmo-
sphere with roofing-felt. :

Rottier, professor of chemistry in the University of Ghent, has recently made
many experiments, with a view to discover which it is, among the various con-
stituents of the coal-oil tar, that operates most efficaciously for the protection of
wood from decay. His examination extended to the light or ethereal oil, the
earbolic or phenylic acid, the aniline, the naphthaline, the insoluble residuum
of the distillation, and the green, fluorescent oil which, redistilled at 275° to
320°, yields pyrene and paranaphthaline.

Of these elements, the light oil and the aniline evinced little or no efficacy.
Wood saturated with the first lasted no longer than the same kind without it,

PRESERVATION OF WOOD. 205

and the protraction of decay by the aniline might be expressed as being equal
only to 6.66 per cent. Phenylic acid is known to be efficacious in the preserva-
tion of animal substances, and as the heavy tar oil contains it, the virtue of the
latter was supposed to consist in the amount which it held of the former. But
Rottier’s experiments do not confirm this conjecture. Coal tar deprived of its
phenylic acid proved as efficacious as that of commerce, which contains a large
quantity. Napthaline has proved very effectual in protecting collections pertain-
ing to natural history from insects; but the presumption arising from this fact
is not borne out by the experiments of Rottier as regards the preservation of
wood. It is otherwise, however, with the heavy green oil; this evinced uncom-
mon efficacy. It remained, therefore, to determine upon which of its constituents
the virtue depends. Pyrene and paranaphthaline, on direct experiment, yielded
no favorable results; whence it is to be inferred that it is the green oil itself
which operates to the protection of wood from decay. It would seem also, from
the experiments, that the higher the temperature at which the coal tar is distilled
so much the more operative is it, probably from containing a greater quantity of
the oil.

The fact should, however, not be overlooked that the experiments just men-
tioned have been conducted on a small seale, and the results have not remained
uncontroverted. More decisive certainly are the experiments made with such
materials as the sills of railroads, as well on account of the size of the materials
submitted to trial as the parallelism of the circumstances under which the pro-
cess is applied. Thus much at least we have already learned, that the preser-

vation of wood, even to the extent which is now within our reach, is a subject
which may well excite attention. If we had attained no other result but that
of being able to impart to soft wood the durability of oak, and hence to substitute
the eaiee for the latter, this of itself would be of great importance, and be
attended with many advantages to the various branches of industry in which
the use of wood is indispensable.

CAOUTCHOUC AND GUTTA-PERCHA.

TRANSLATED FROM THE ‘‘AUS DER NATUR.”

Through the discovery of America and the sea route to the East Indies, those
prophetic words of Seneca were finally realized after so many centuries :
“Venient annis
Szecula seris, quibus oceanus
Vincula verum laxet et ingens
Pateat tellus, Typhisque novos

Delegat orbes, nec sit terris
Ultima Thule.”

Not precisely these, but similar dark legends, traditions of a remote age, in
faint though recognizable lines, showed the route which Columbus and Vasco de
Gama were to pursue. It was the fortitude with which these heroes braved the
terrors of the ocean that gave them the victory. The one unveiled a new
world, and the other brought India near to us, a country the charming aspect
of which had, from the most remote time, kindled the enthusiasm or desires of
mankind. ‘These deeds soon produced their fruits; the unexpectedly expanded
view opened a new era, and the inexhaustible resources which became accessible
brought about a transformation of society.

The access to the tropical regions, over which nature has so lavishly strewn
its rich treasures, became more and more easy ; more and more of those precious
gifts which the incessantly active though always still life of the vegetable realm
works out there for man, the lord of creation, came to light and took rank among
the necessities of civilized nations. Centuries have passed and the treasure is
still inexhaustible—nay, still partly undisclosed. 'The London Exhibition has
taught us this, its East India division displaying numerous natural products
which we had not even known by name.

The abundance of light, heat, and moisture within the tropics creates there
a vegetation of the luxuriance and splendor of which we of the cold north can
hardly form an idea. The great fertility of the soil allows so many trees to
grow up near each other that their branches find no room to spread. Thus
every stem strives to overtop the other, pushing up towards the light, and far
from the ground displaying its-crown. Everything is so dense there that none
can advance a step without opening a path with a chopping-knife. The ground
itself is not large enough to bear all the plants shooting up in such rank exube-
rance; they themselves form a new soil for others, a soil which thousands of
parasites contest with each other. All the fairy splendor spoken of in the
ancient legend of the suspended gardens of Semiramis is here not only realized
but surpassed. Here every tree is a true flower garden, rich in its variety of
tints and forms. Raised high into the air on a single stem, these floating gar-
dens look down from their giddy attitude upon the wanderer in charming grace-
fulness. With the manifold plants and blossoms that seem to shoot from the
boughs of some trees, or to root themselves on them, strangely contrast those ~
mosses which hang down from the branches of others like immense periwigs
or horse-tails, or which, resembling beards, make the giants of the forest appear
like gray veterans, whose heads the lapse of centuries has been insufficient to
bend. But there is no path leading to the splendor of those luminous heights ;

CAOUTCHOUC AND GUTTA-PERCHA. 207

the traveller must content himself with a view from great distance, for more
than one Cerberus guard the treasures. The external aspect, combined with the
astonishing fertility and the superabundance of products of every description,
suggests the idea that the garden of Eden, the paradise from which man had
been expelled, has there again come to light, for the curse under which man-
_ kind groans—‘ In the sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat thy bread’””—seems there
to be powerless. But a shade is inseparable from light; there are hosts of
terrors connected with those paradisiacal regions, lavishly scattered by nature
- in order to prevent man from easily enjoying his life amid all that magnificence.
One example out of a thousand will make this clear.

Of the various branches of natural history, botany alone is regularly taught
in our schools, which at least acquaints the youthful student with those off-
springs of our flora which he meets in his rural excursions. Many of our
readers will remember the surprise they used to feel at seeing a thick, milk-
like juice profusely flowing from some of the plants which they plucked. That
juice was in some cases white like milk, in some colorless and dark, in other
but rarer cases it was colored. Thus celandine, which we generally see grow-
ing around hedges and on heaps of rubbish, is all filled with a yellow juice,
while the juice of some varieties of wolf’s-milk is rose-colored. To the same class
of plants belong, among the natives of our soil, the various salad plants, the
poppy; the dandelion, &c.

The nearer we come to the equator the larger becomes the number of plants
bearing a milky juice, and the greater the diversity of the qualities of these
various juices. Just as the plants themselves mostly belong to the three
great families of the euphorbiacex, apocynex, and urticez, in the same way we
can divide the various milk juices, in general, into three classes. The first is the
nearest in resemblance to animal milk; its taste is sweet, refreshing, and cooling,
for which reason it is variously used by the inhabitants of those regions as an
excellent means of refreshment. But to the plants themselves these juices are
no aliment, as has been erroneously believed; they are in this respect by no
means to be compared to the milk of the animals. 'The second class has become
the most important toman. he fatty globules of animal milk are here replaced
by a peculiar substance, which, like milk, is prevented from coagulating by an
albuminous matter. Caoutchouc is here formed in the same way as cream out
of milk at rest, and both possess that peculiar property that, when coagulation
has taken place, a separation of the single globules can no more be brought
about. The third class, finally, produces the most terrible poisons, which, in
the hands of the aborigines of America, Asia, and’ Africa, become the most
dangerous weapon against rapacious animals and against men frequently more
rapacious. .

Every part of the globe has its peculiar plants, which yield the chief compo-
nent parts for these arrow poisons. They are mostly little known to us, the
savages guarding their treasures with watchful jealousy. The preparation of ar-
row poison is a secret of the priests and sorcerers ; it is accompanied, as is also the
gathering of the milky juices for that purpose, with the performance of sundry
superstitious ceremonies. He who is discovered selling the poison to Huro-
peans is put to death; the purchaser.shares the same fate. If the wound is
only so deep that the poisoned point of the arrow penetrates to the blood, a
violent convulsion of the limbs takes place almost instantaneously, which, in a
few minutes, is followed by death, foam covering the lips of the victim, and very
soon after by the decomposition of the body. ‘he wounded man is irretrievably
lost, for no European knows an antidote; the speedy cutting out of the wound
and of its surrounding is said to be the only possible means of salvation. At
least the natives make use of this means in order to save the flesh of the animals
killed by them with poisoned arrows. Such flesh is entirely innoxious, in spite
of the immediate effect of the poison, and is daily eaten in great quantities by

208 CAOUTCHOUC AND GUTTA-PERCHA.

the savages. It is equally remarkable that many of the plants containing poi-
sonous juices yield some of the most important means of subsistence in those
regions. We mention here only the arrow-root, which, in tropical countries, is
a substitute for potatoes; the yam-root, which has of late fiequently been pko-
posed as a substitute for the diseased potato in our own countries; and chiefly
the manioc, (zatropha manihot,) which is to the natives of South America
—colored, as well as white—what rice and the cereals are to the inhabitants of
the Old World. Nay, our own potato offers an example of the same kind.

The plants which yield caoutchouc, now become an important commercial -
article, belong to all the three families above enumerated. ‘he real caoutchoue
tree, from which elastic gum was first. extracted, is designated by the scientific
name of siphonia elastica, and belongs to the euphorbiacez ; it yields the greatest
quantity, but many other trees of the same family yield smaller quantities. The
best caoutchouc is derived from a plant of the family of the apocynez, called
cynanchum. ¥urther are to be mentioned here, wrceola elastica, Roxb., a plant
of Sumatra; vahea gummifera Poiset, of Madagascar; collophora utilis Mart.,
and hanconia speciosa Mart., of Brazil; willughbera edulis, of India, &e.
Among the urtices the various fig trees deserve particular mention, (/icus relig-
zosa, indica, benjaminea, toxicartas, F. elastica, Roxb.,) but besides them several
other plants.

Tropical America and the East Indies are the great sources of supply. In
the former it is chiefly the euphorbiacez, in the latter the fig trees, that yield
caoutchoue for trade; while the plants of the family of the apocynez are rather
common to both. As soon as the Caucasian race will grant the unhappy inhab-
itants of Africa the right of being men, rich sources will also be disclosed in this
part of the world.

The genuine caoutchouc tree was first described by Aublet, under the name
of hevea guianensis; but its blossom and fruit parts were not well known to
him, they being first made known at a Jater period, by Richard, whose merits in
making us acquainted with this useful plant were, however, subsequently passed
over in silence by his own son. Wildenow subsequently referred the spe-
cies to the genus siphonia. This tree grows sixty feet high, and about
three feet thick; its wood is white, and its bark, especially on its very wide-
spread branches, thin, grayish brown, and smooth. The Indians make long and
deep incisions, reaching the inner wood, all around the tree, from which, the
wound being kept open by a small wooden wedge, the milky juice flows sponta-
neously and profusely. ‘To promote its drying, they make it flow in thin layers
over moulds of unburned clay, mostly of the form of round and short-necked
bottles of various sizes. The coating is repeated until the required thickness is
obtained ;* the drying process is facilitated by fire, the smoke of which gives a
black color to the gum; the moulds are then crushed within and removed in
pieces. Formerly elastic gum used to come to us in strange shapes of birds,
quadrupeds, &c.; now we receive it mostly in large plates, or blocks, or also in
a fluid state, in hermetically-closed jars.

The collecting of the milky juice is done by the Indians with little care; the
gum, therefore, contains many heterogeneous substances, which are an impedi-
ment in its elaboration. In general, the price of the article varies greatly in the
regions that produce it, being determined by the quality of the merchandise, the
size of the pieces, and the quantity brought to market. The commission sent
by several German princes to examine the region of the Mosquito coast bought
fifteen pounds of caoutchouce for five pence, (English.) Other natural products,
like sarsaparilla, the collecting of which requires less labor, offer more gain, and
thus the Indians, whose wants are easily satisfied, attach little value to elastic
gum. But for this circumstance the exports from America would be considerably
larger; a single man can collect sixteen pounds a day; however, more than

CAOUTCHOUC AND GUTTA-PERCHA. - 209

three or four pounds is rarely gathered. The inner bark of the tree is used by
the Indians for the preparation of articles of dress.

The genuine caoutchouc tree is found everywhere in tropical America, from
Mexico to Brazil. It chiefly abounds, however, in the extended plains south
of the Orinoco, which are covered, so to say, by one primeval forest, and across
which only the rivers, and especially the Amazon, can serve as roads, and in the
numberless low islands enclosed by the exceedingly wide estuary of that gigantic
stream. From this region caoutchouc is also exported in the form of shoes,
manufactured by the Indians, who, for that purpose, make the milky juice flow
slowly and repeatedly over the necessary moulds. Besides, considerable quan-
tities are gathered around Quito, on the Mosquito coast, in Guiana, in the island
of Mauritius, and in Brazil.

In the East Indies, the fig trees are predominant. Their numerous species,
which chiefly form forests in low localities, invest the vegetation of the islands
situated in the Indian Archipelago with a peculiar charactey, manifesting itself
in their closed and sombre appearance, the density of the forests, and the moisture
and dampness of the air. ‘The stems of the trees rapidly develop themselves,
and are remarkable for their bulky thickness, their irregular growth, and the
wide spread of their intertwined branches. The wood, however, is soft and
spongy, and a multitude of parasites and creeping plants spread a living cover
over the bark of the stems growing out of the mouldering ground. Numerous
hosts of apes leap to and fro, screaming and howling, over the high branches,
and the thickets are all enlivened by the varied carols of the birds.

Already, when approaching the Straits of Sunda, the traveller finds a full
compensation for the weariness of his long voyage, and the view upon the coast,
teaming with vegetation, surprises him the more pleasantly as he still remem-
bers the sparsely-covered heights of the Canary and Cape Verde islands and the
bald summits of the African table mountains. The nearer he approaches, the
livelier becomes his desire to enter the scene which so charmingly opens to his
eyes. While Borneo is covered with forests displaying in the highest degree
the character of equatorial exuberance, and Sumatra presents the aspect of a
perfect tropical wilderness, Java, the finest of the Sunda isles, deserves the
. prize of beauty. Here the vegetable kingdom can be seen in its perfectly pure
form; here more plainly than anywhere else can we see what the undisturbed
power of vegetable growth in tropical climates, aided by a combination of most
favorable circumstances, is able to achieve. In no other part, probably, of the
eastern hemisphere is such luxuriance of vegetation to be met with. he whole
island is a hot-bed reposing over a hearth or subterranean fire, still active and
everywhere manifesting its activity. Just at the foot of the voleano Merapi,
rising to an altitude of 8,000 feet, vegetation appears most powerful. Hundreds
of species of trees, among which there is hardly one falling short of a hundred
feet, form the high arched primeval forest, towering over a rich, spongy soil,
covered with an endless multitude of mushrooms. Among these trees the
urticew, or fig tree, are, in general, the principal figures.

Forming a continuation of the volcanic chain of the Sunda isles, there is
another range of voleanoes, which takes a northerly direction: it is that of the
Moluccas and Philippines. Chiefly in the latter islands, one of which, Luzon,
is covered with a dense range of volcanoes, the gorgeous magnificence of the
equatorial zone is fully displayed. If we there ascend the mountains, we per-
ceive in the forests the powerful fig trees, around which luxuriant parasites wind
a dense trellis-work.

On the Indian main land, and chiefly in further India, under the perpendicu-
lar rays of the sun, nature displays its full strength in developing the vegetable
world. And, again, it is the urticee, together with terebinths, magnolias, gum
trees, with large resplendent leaves, hairy silver trees, palms, bamboos, and
similar plants, that produce a theatre of vegetation entirely new to the European.

14 §

210 CAOUTCHOUC AND GUTTA-PERCHA.

It is true we find in our hot-houses the representatives of the plants which
yield us caoutchoue, but we see them there only in a more or less stinted con-
dition. However carefully we may rear and guard them, the animating glow
of their native sun cannot be replaced. As the European becomes another man,
if he does not entirely degenerate, in a tropical climate, so the character of those
plants becomes altered in our artificial hot-houses ; they yield no caoutchoue,
their milky juice containing only a substance which greatly resembles our
mistletoe glue. And this proves that the burning sun of the tropics is a prin-
cipal agent in forming caoutchouc.

It is not exactly known who first brought elastic gum into Europe. Gener-
ally, itis believed that it was the celebrated French savant, La Condamine, sent
by the French Academy to South America to partake in the measuring of
degrees of the globe. On bis return, in 1736, he is said to have spread the first
knowledge of it. Later, in 1751, he more fully communicated his observations
on the subject to the Academy of Paris. At that time elastic gum was still
_ regarded as a great curiosity, to be found only in museums. The Portuguese
were the first to introduce it, the commercial houses of Lisbon selling it under
the name of bococho. In the far east caoutchoue was discovered by a company
of soldiers who were compelled to cut their way with the sword through a forest
of Prince of Wales island. They were surprised to find their blades covered
with a glutinous substance, which proved to be caoutchouc. To Dr. Roxburgh
we owe the first botanical description of the first East India plant, ( Urceola
elastica,) from which caoutchoue was derived.

For many years it was turned to no other use but the effacing of lead pencil
marks. By degrees, however, the most important property of the hardened
plant juice, its uncommon elasticity, became better known and usefully employed.
In 1790 elastic bands were already manufactured; the art of softening caout-
choue and forming it into water-tight textures had.been learned. In 1791
Grassert made caoutchoue tubes by twisting fresh-cut pieces, in the form of a
screw, around a thon. In'1820 Stadeler extended caoutchoue into fine threads,
which were spun and woven into elastic textile fabrics. Later still, Mackintosh
brought to market those water-proof fabrics which bore his name, and which,
in a short time, made the tour of the whole civilized world, but just as rapidly
fell into disfavor, the tightly-fitting dresses made of them proving to be incon-
venient. Jor, in the same way as they kept off the rain, they also prevented
the passage of the exhalations of the body, so that he who wore them for some
time became wet even without rain.

That people also knew how to make use of caoutchouce in a different way,
appears from Seume’s “ Walk to Syracuse.” “Fine water,” says he at one
place, “is one of my chief favorites, and wherever opportunity offered I ap-
proached and drank of it. You must know that I am not so Diogenes-like in
the matter as to drink from the palm of my hand, but that I use on my pil-
grimage a flask of gum, which is clean, keeps well, and can be made to assume
any shape.” And again, when speaking of the insecurity of the high roads:
“There is little reconnoitring with me; my hammer and my gum flask will
tempt few robbers.” But it is undoubtedly the chemists that turned the elastic
gum to best advantage. We can say that it became indispensable to them.
The successes achieved by that science since the end of the last century are to
be attributed, in part, to the use of the apparently unimportant tubes, a few
inches long, which the chemist so easily manufactures out of that gum. With
their aid he makes gas conductors air-tight, and prepares many a complicated
apparatus. This importance of the elastic gum is owing to the property of ad-
hesion to each other residing in its fresh-cut surfaces. The chemist simply
places a small piece of a thin sheet of caoutchouc in such a manner over a glass
tube of convenient diameter that the two edges flatly overlay each other, and then
rapidly cuts them off with a sharp pair of scissors. If the cut edges do not

CAOUTCHOUC AND GUTTA-PERCHA. 211

touch each other he presses them carefully together, and the tube is done. The
value of those tubes is enhanced by other chemical properties of the substance,
which is insensible to the influences of many acrid liquids and vapors. Chlorine
gas, hydrochloric, and many other acids and caustic alkalies, do not affect it.
Concentrated sulphuric acid causes a carbonization of its surface, but a further
decomposition only at high temperature, sulphurous acid being evolved, and
the gum assuming the softness of resin. Nitric acid makes it yellow, and, after
some time, soft. In the fuming acid it dissolves, evolving carbonic oxyd. But
a mixture of concentrated sulphuric acid and nitric acid acts most destructively.

The comfnon solvents exercise no influence on caoutchouc. The solution of
this substance was, therefore, a long time an enigma to chemists, even after Mac-
quer’s pretended discovery in 1768 of the key to it. It was Pelletier who first
indicated the right way of doing it. Having been softened in hot water,
caoutchouc is solved by ether freed from spirit of wine. Without this precaution
the substance is only softened, as it is by petroleum or spirits of turpentine.
At the same time the substance increases by swelling even to thirty times its
volume. It is an easy matter to blow the softened flasks into a considerable
size. Mitchell expanded a caoutchouc bladder of the size of a walnut to fifteen
inches diameter. He prepared such balloons, some measuring six feet in
diameter, whith, being filled with hydrogen gas, serve as toy balloons for
children. One of these balloons having slipped from his hand, came down to
the ground only at a distance from the town of a hundred and thirty miles. But
caoutchouc swelled in rock or turpentine oil can be so much extended by the
application of heat and mechanical means, larger quantities of the liquid being

radua.ly added, as to appear dissolved. 'The caoutchouc membrane, however,
which is left after the evaporation of the solvent, has the inconvenient property of
long remaining sticky. To remedy this inconvenience, Benzinger has by acci-
dent discovered an efficient means, not yet widely known, in the admixture of a
very small quantity of a concentrated solution of sulphuret of potassa.

Better solvents for caoutchouc have lately been discovered. Such are
chloroform, sulphide of carbon, and chiefly those earburetted fluids which are
derived from the distillation of tar or of caoutchouc itself. In one factory at
Greenwich, England, about eight hundred pounds of waste caoutchoue are daily
subjected to dry distillation in iron vessels. When this operation is not carried
too far there remains a greasy mass, which retains this property, and effectually
withstands the influence of the air and water. For this reason it is used in
England for the purpose of saturating cables, and thus rendering them more
durable. A similar greasy mass is gained by melting caoutchouc at a tempera-
ture of 125°. It swells and burns with a bright whitish flame, so that in
South America caoutchouc is used for purposes of illumination instead of candles
and torches.

In the mineral kingdom, too, substances are found which in their external
properties greatly resemble caoutchouc, but resist the power of solvents still
more effectually than the vegetable material. A, similar substance can be pro-
duced artificially by exposing thin layers of linseed oil to the air for six or
seven months.

As early as a quarter of a century ago caoutchouc had become a branch of
industry of some importance. But the English imports of the raw material
show that it was still resting on an uncertain basis. While in 1829 about
100,000 pounds of elastic gum was imported, its consumption in the following
year reached only half that amount. In 1833 a duty was paid upon no less
than 178,675 pounds. The properties of the raw material itself greatly restricted
its manufacture. The use of the articles manufactured was changeable and
limited. By moisture and cold gum-elastic partly loses its elasticity, and be-
comes hard, but it is softened by heat and compression in the hand. Many an
article that was very useful in summer had to be put aside in winter. The

pi Wye CAOUTCHOUC AND GUTTA-PERCHA.

removal of this inconvenience gave an expansion formerly unthought of to this
branch of industry, which became manifest at the world exhibitions of London, |
New York, and Paris, in 1842. The importation of caoutchouc into England
amounted to 750,000 pounds; and about the time of the London Exhibition one
South American port alone exported yearly no less than 4,000 hundred-weight.
By what means this rapid change was consummated may be described in another
place; here we find it more convenient to introduce the lately discovered com-
panion of caoutchoue. ‘The manufacturing processes of both are almost identical,
and are therefore to be treated in conjunction.

During one of his travels in the Hast Indies, Montgomery, surgeon of the Sin-
gapore Kast India Company, entered into conversation with a Malay Iaborer.
While talking, he observed the handle of a hoe, and he heard with surprise
that its substance, however hard it appeared to be, could be softened by
immersion into hot water, and could thereupon assume and preserve any desired
shape. The experiment being immediately made, the assertion of the Malay
was fully confirmed. On further inquiry that excellent quality of the substance
in question was found to have been long known among the nations of Java,
where it was used for manufacturing canes and handles of whips, as well as of
various other implements, and especially of knives and daggers. Montgomery
was induced to send, in 1843, various specimens to London, and to éall public at-
tention to the manifold uses of which the thus examined substance was capable.
His words were more duly noticed than those of D’Almerida, who about ten
years before had sent a similar freight to the Asiatic Society in London. The
Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Industry bestowed a gold medal
on Montgomery. But gutta-percha was at the same time also discovered by
Thomas Lobb, who, in 1842-43, made a botanical journey through the Hast
India islands.

The new, but now already so well-known substance, is also a dried milky
juice, in many respects resembling caoutchoue, and, therefore, considerably
used of late as a substitute for it. The Malay name, gutta-percha, is applied
by the natives to an inferior sort, derived from a tree as yet unknown to us,
probably a species of fig-tree, while our gutta-percha is called gutta-taban by
the islanders.

The mother plant was for a time unknown until Oxley sent to Hooker, in
England, some Gace specimens from Singapore, the principal place of
exportation. ‘The parts of the plants were enclosed in a gutta-percha box, and
reached thus well preserved the hands of the botanist. He recognized the plant
to belong to the genus tsonandra, lately introduced by Wright, and to the
family of the sapotacee, and gave it the name of isonandra gutta. Here we
must remark that gutta is not the latin word for “drop,” but a Malay word de-
signating “ tree’s sap.”

The tree attains an altitude of forty, and according to some even of sixty or
seventy feet. ‘he stem is straight, and often from three to six feet in diameter;
its blossoms, four in a bunch, are small and white; the fruit is sweet, and yields
a fat useful in the preparation of some kinds of food. The wood is soft, fibrous,
and spongy ; it contains numerous oblong cavities filled with the milky juice,
and forming broad streaks. Unfortunately the way of procuring gutta-percha
is exceedingly crade. It is not done by making incisions in the trees, as is the
case in gathering caoutchoue, but by felling the stem, some grown to an age of
from fifty to a hundred years, peeling off the bark, and collecting the milky
juice in a trough made of the stem of the musa paradisiaca, in cocoanut shells,
&c. The juice, when spread out in thin layers, soon becomes solid in the open
air; larger quantities are thickened by heat. The yield of a tree is said not
to exceed thirty pounds.

Although the tree abounds over a vast extent of territory—in the island of
Singapore, in the forests of Jvhore, at the extremity of the Malay peninsula,

CAOUTCHOUC AND GUTTA-PERCHA. 215

in Borneo, Sumatra, and all the numerous islands of the straits of Singapore
and the Indian Archipelago—the destruction of the stems, (270,000 in all,) caused
by the rapidly increasing exportation—22,225 pounds in 1844, but already 25,533
ewt. in the following three years—gave rise to serious apprehensions. And in
fact, the exportation itself seemed to decrease soon after, for, after reaching
11,114 ewt. in 1846, it amounted only to 8,091? cwt. in the following year and
a half. It appears, however, to have since somewhat increased.

Be this as it may, warnings were sent over from England to treat the trees
more savingly, and to make incisions in, instead of felling, them. Frequent
complaints were heard that in India people believed the primeval forests to be
inexhaustible. That they are not so, and what pernicious consequences follow
their devastation is proved best by the example of the West India islands.
At the time of their discovery, these were all covered with the finest forests ;
now fine forests are only to be found in the larger islands, which owe to them
their abundance of water and fertility. The smaller islands, however, the forests
of which have been recklessly destroyed, suffer from drought, and in part possess
neither springs nor brooks. There is scarcity of fuel all over the West India
islands ; in Cuba the sugar pans are heated with orange-wood, the sugar-cane
not being sufficient for the purpose. ‘Though this example speaks loud enough,
people in the East Indies have no ear for the warning, and seem bent on repro-
ducing there the deplorable condition of the West India islands. The earnest
entreaties from England remain unheeded, and the well-known botanist See-
mann informs us that he could discover no gutta-percha tree even around Singa-
pore. At some places the tree is grown by European settlers in gardens. The
coasts of the Indian Archipelago, too, are already greatly denuded, while trans-
portation from the interior is connected with great difficulties.

Gutta-percha is brought to market partly in a liquid state, partly in small
slices, or kneaded into blocks and rolls, in the cuts of which the layers are dis-
tinctly visible of which the whole mass is composed. In this ease it is solid
and hard, but still easily receives impressions by the nail. The color is more or
less reddish brown, owing to pieces of bark contained in the mass. This con-
tains, besides other substances, parts of plants of various kinds, sawdust,
earth, &c., admixed with dishonest intent, and sometimes amounting to a fourth
of the whole, especially as the trade at the principal place of export is almost
entirely in the hands of the crafty Chinese.

Gutta-percha, in itself, possesses little, if any odor; but it often smells
strongly, as of rotten cheese, or of something sour, on account of admixed
substances in a state of fermentation. At ordinary temperature, 0° 25’, it is
hard, leathery, solid, and strong, so that, for many purposes, it is preferred to
wood or horn; it is tough, very stiff, and little elastic, so as not to resume its
original shape after much bending. At no temperature does it possess the
elastic ductility of caoutchouc. It offers a considerable resistance; its solidity
has been tried by various experiments. According to MacCayan a piece one-
eighth of an inch thick is torn only by a pressure of 50 pounds. Payen put
gradually increasing weights upon a very thin gutta-percha band 74" long,
1” 44’ broad, and not fully ;$4,/” thick, until it tore; this took place under
a pressure of more than 44 pounds, the band, in the meanwhile, having ex-
panded to 1’ 14”, that is to say, almost to double its length. Fermantel has
found that every square line of the diameter of a gutta-percha band could bear,
before tearing, a pressure of 25 pounds. The line of division marking where
the elasticity begins to be tasked, would, according to these experiments, fall on
five pounds for every square line, or 720 pounds for a square inch. Ata higher
temperature, by which gutta-percha is softened, tearing ensues much sooner,
and the latter, therefore, frequently proved a failure when services were de-
manded of it which did not agree with its nature.

The most remarkable peculiarity of this substance, which makes it appro-

214 CAOUTCHOUC AND GUTTA-PERCHA.
priate for so many uses, is its relation to heat. Above 50° it becomes more
flexible and somewhat elastic, but still maintains its hardness and remarkable
power of resistance; on severe tension its contracts but litile. At 65° to 70°
it becomes soft and very plastic, and loses much of its toughness. In this con-
dition several pieces of it can easily be kneaded into one whole. Mere immer-
sion into bot water of these temperatures suflices to give the mass every shape
desired, which it also preserves after cooling off, when it reassumey its former
hardness at: every temperature below +45°. It is, further, easily inflammable,
and burns with a bright flame, and amid strong sparkling, dripping off a dark,
glutinuous residue. In regard to solvents, gutta-percha is like caoutchouc ; its
decomposition in increased heat and its composition are similar to those of that
substance. Like it it consists of carbides of hydrogen. The little oxygen
which has been found in analyzing it was probably received from the air during
_the purifying operation. ‘The article of trade has frequently been subjected to
chemical experiments, but we cannot say that a clear result has been elicited.
We omit them, therefore, mentioning only one circumstance which has often
caused confusion in practice.

The surface of a carefully cleaned plate is found to be, in parts, covered with
a bluish bloom, which, however often wiped away, reproduces itself as long as
the plate remains flexible. After years the whole surface appears to be faintly
grayish blue, and under the microscope can be perceived an exceedingly thin
layer of very fine, white, little dots. A higher temperature, to which the gutta-
percha had been exposed, greatly promotes this alteration, and therefore the
darker sorts suffer by it most. he physical property resulting from this change
of the surface is noteworthy. Unchanged gutta-percha is a good insulator of
electricity, and occupies so low a rank in the scale of electric affection by rubbing
as to remain strongly negative when rubbed by almost any substance. Only
gun-cotton and electric-paper make it positively electric. he changed surface
does not destroy the power of insulation, but the gutta-percha rises thereby high in
the scale of electrical excitement, and when rubbed with almost any substance
becomes positively electric in a high degree. The exceptions are only mica,
diamonds, and furs. Hence we learn the remarkable fact that we possess in
gutta-percha a plate, one plane of which—the blue—when lightly rubbed with
the hand, with linen, glass, rock crystal, the barb of a feather, or flannel,
develops intense positive, and the other—the brown—intense negative elee-
tricity when going through the same processes.

Gersdorf finds the cause of this change of surface, which resembles a similar
appearance on the surface of ripe plums, in the attraction of water from the
atmosphere. Gutta-percha, deprived by cautious melting of all water, of which
it, as a rule, imbibes some 5-6 per cent. in the process,of formation, and there-
fore assuming a dark brown color, is soon covered, especially on its cut planes,
with this vapory coating; while this does not take place, or does only a great
deal later, with the light-brown substance, which has not been rendered anhy-
drous to so extreme a degree, except when, and only where, it is traversed by
dark veins. Still, it is a question whether the change of color is a consequence
of a mere deprivation of water, or rather attributable to the influence of heat,
that is, to a change of the substance itself.

Therefore, it is likely that the change of the gutta-percha is caused by a se-
cretion of a component part of the mass by the influence of air and heat.
The excessive positive irritability of the altered surface, which we find in
no other vegetable substance, is an indication that the process is connected
with the two kinds of resin which Payen has obtained from gutta-percha. A
closer inquiry into the question, especially in the indicated direction, would be
useful, for only thus could we discovar the causes of the unfortunate transfor-
mation of gutta-percha into a very brittle mass, a change noticeable chiefly in
small articles manufactured out of that substance.

CAOUTCHOUC AND GUTTA-PERCHA. 215

Caoutchouc and gutta-percha can be easily distinguished from each other.
First, they are entirely different in their structure. When gutta-percha is
rolled into thin sheets, or drawn into strips, it is like a fibrous substance, which
is not the case with caoutchouc. A thin strip of gutta-percha can be con-
siderably stretched in one direction, in that of the fibre, but it tears at every
attempt to stretch it obliquely to that line, while caoutchoue is easily stretched
in every direction. When thin sheets of both substances are examined in
their relation to light by means of polarization caoutchouc shows little, if any,
change of color, while gutta-percha offers fine appearances. The latter seems
to be constructed of prisms of the most variegated color, which appear to be in-
terlaced in each other,

In a chemical way, too, the two substances can be distinguished from each
other by means of chloroform. Gutta-percha is dissolved in it boiling ; it yields
no ether from the solution by distillation, but an alcohol in the form of a white,
ductile, not sticky membrane, and such is its residue after the evaporation of
the solvent. Caoutchouc, on the other hand, swells up in boiling chloro-
form, and only when the jelly has been divided by chemical means, perfect so-
lution ensues in the further process of boiling. Alcohol acts here as a means of
distillation; the caoutchouc is secreted as a coherent, not as a sticky mass.
In this way the two substances can be detected even when mixed together.

Of the formation of these two vegetable substances we know nothing, and
neither do we know more of the part they act in the organism of plants. In
order to avoid the difficulty, they are designated as secreted matter.

When Montgomery sent to London the first specimens of gutta-percha he
chiefly recommended it for the purpose of manufacturing surgical instruments,
as those made of caoutchouc would soon become softened and glutinous. It
was, however, soon found out that the excellent qualities of gutta-percha render
it, much more than caoutchouc, appropriate for a thousand other uses; it espe-
cially promised to become a substitute for leather, showing none of the disad-
vantages presenting themselves at the application of caoutchouc for the same
purpose. Besides, it is not subject to wear and tear; and when the shape into
which this pliable mass is cast gets out of fashion, it has only to be put into
hot water in order to be transformed, or used for something quite different.
Although known only for a short period of time, it is already used for the manu-
facture of so many things, and the ways of manufacturing it are so manifold,
that it will be difficult to present here a true picture of the whole.

The operations used in working these two substances are common, in part.
The first is that of cleansing them from foreign admixtures, the black Java
caoutchoue, particularly, containing a considerable multitude of small stones
and vegetable particles. At the purchase of caoutchouc the quantity of water
it contains is, above all, to be taken into account, that admitting of deceitful
augmentations. Tor not only is thereby the real value diminished by a fourth,
but it also loses considerably of its toughness and ductility, while its whiter
color apparently indicates a better sort.

The cleaning operation is executed partly in a mechanical and partly in a
chemical way. ‘The mass passes between two turning cylinders, corrugated,
overlying each other horizonally; this removes the stones and similar sub-
stances. In order to make this process complete the rolled sheets are washed
in lye. A large number of these leaves are pressed together in a heated
cylinder, which gives them great uniformity. When in large plates caoutchouc
is put under a hydraulic press, where it is subjected for six or eight days to a
severe pressure, at a temperature of from 45° to 50°. When very thin sheets
are to be obtained, the heated mass passes through a rolling machinery, the
hollow cylinders of which are heated to a temperature of 100°, by means of
steam or of hot iron bars, and which are gradually placed tighter and tighter.
The mass being very adhesive in heat, sheets of every length can be obtained

216 CAOUTCHOUC AND GUTTA-PERCHA.

by fresh additions to it during the process of rolling. In order that the sheets
be prevented from sticking to each other, they are, when taken from the rollers,
placed into cold water or strewn over by tale powder. When placed between
textures or covered with them on one side, and then passed between rollers,
caoutcboue and texture adhere to each other, thus yiclding a very dgrable
water-proof material, which is not, however, free from defects. By pressing the
edges together, while heated, the caoutchoue sheets become perteetly united,
so that in this way various utensils, bags, &c., of all dimensions, can easily
be manufactured of them. This property made Howisse believe that we
could soon do without tailors. According to him, instead of being sewed, the
edges of the single pieces of a dress are to be besmeared with caoutchouc and
pressed together.

Plates of caoutchouc and gutta-percha are easily cut into threads and rib-
bons of any thickness by two spiral blades of a peculiar cutting machine. In
order to facilitate the weaving of caoutchouc threads, they are made non-
elastic by stretching and cooling. The finished texture being heated to a tem-
perature of 45°, the caoutchoue regains its former elasticity. Both eaoutchouc
and gutta-percha can also be drawn into very fine uniform threads by means of
a drawing iron, the material being swelled up in sulphuretted carbon, contain-
ing an admixture of alcohol. hick threads can be stretched into thin ones of
six times their length, and when heated to a temperature of 100° they preserve
the length obtained by stretching. After cooling, the same process can again
and again be repeated, until the desired thinness is obtained. After six repe-
titions, for instance, the length obtained is already like 16,625 to 1, representing
the original length. Such thin threads of gutta-percha are particularly to be
recommended as twine to artistic gardeners. ‘Their pliability and strength are
astonishing. Plaitings derived from them seem to be indestructible.

When caoutchouc is to be used as dough or cement, it is first made to swell
in about double its weight of the solvent, and the jelly is then crushed ina
machine by means of several cylinders. This mass serves either as glue, as, for
instance, in the manufacture of cabinet ware and musical instruments, or to make
certain materials water-proof, or to save them from moisture, as, for instance,
the wainscot of buildings. After the example of England, German bookbinders,
too, use caoutchouc, instead of animal glue, to great advantage. A caoutchoue
cement, known under the name of mairne glue, has evinced some excellent
qualities, especially in joints of wood and metals exposed to water, as well
as for calking purposes. A solution of caoutchoue and rapeseed oil, which
absorbs of the former only a one-hundredth part of its own weight, is used as
grease for parts of machines exposed to excessive friction. When slaked lime
is added to the softened mass which caoutchouc yields at a temperature of 210°,
an excellent water-proof cement is obtained. ‘Though tough, the mass remains
kneadable for years; an admixture of vermillion is, therefore, necessary when
drying up is desired.

A solution of caoutchoue and gutta-percha, has various useful applications,
among others for coating various substances in order to make them water-
proof or to save them from the influence of water and air, as, for instance, in
the manufacture of leather, shoes, and boots, leather and hemp bags, cordage,
&c. A solution of gutta-percha in chloroform is more serviceable in euring
wounds than collodion, which it will undoubtedly replace also in photography.

Within this narrow sphere the cdoutchoue industry but a few years ago
moved. ‘I'he discovery of the remarkable relation of this substance to sulphur
finally removed all defects from the articles obtained by its manufacture. ‘The
English manufacturer, Hancock, early discovered that the hardened vegetable
juice enters into a chemical combination with sulphur, which greatly alters the
property of the former, and makes it entirely indifferent to the influences of the
temperature. Under all circumstances the principal property, elasticity, re-

CAOUTCHOUC AND GUTTA-PERCHA. 217

mains unchanged. Sulphurized, or, as it is called, vuleanized caoutchouc be-
comes neither soft nor glutinous in a tropical heat, nor bard and brittle in the
cold of a northern winter; even a temperature of 100° and upward has no effect
on it. Solvents, too, lose all their power of affecting it.
But before industry could draw considerable advantage from this circum-
stance, various experiments were required, for the discovery of the pre-
cise relation of sulphur to caoutchouc, and of the exact temperature to which
the mixture was to be subjected. The elucidation uf these difficult points we
owe to the American Goodyear, through whom the caoutchouc industry has
risen to a height never dreamed of before.
According to the earlier way of proceeding, the sheets of caoutchoue were
laid in fluid sulphur, of which they absorbed from ten to fifteen per cent.
within two or three hours. This causes no alteration in the properties of the
organic substance, while at a temperature of from 135° to 160° such an altera-
tion is brought about in a few minutes. A longer subjection to this temperature
is injurious; the manufactured article becomes less pliablesand elastic, and be-
comes hard and brittle, so that it tears off short even on a slight stretching. The
same occurs when too much sulphur is absorbed, and this is under that method
always the case, only from one to two pounds of sulphur chemically uniting
with the organic substance. ‘The rest remains lying between the pores, and is
removed by mechanical means by alternate stretching and contraction, or rather
by chemical substances acting as solvents, as alcoholic lye, ether, sulphide of

carbon, oil of turpentine, or benzine. ‘The latter process must always be applied
“ when the vulcanized caoutchoue is brought in connexion with metals, which
the residue of sulphur not chemically united would affect injuriously.

The difficulty of observing the right measure of sulphurization is proved
by the manifold complaints about the inferiority of the manufactured articles in
the market, which by no means possess the so much vaunted excellent qualities.
It is easier to observe that precise limit under the methods of cold vuleaniza-
tion recommended by Parkes and Gerard. The caoutchoue, or the article man-
ufactured from it, is steeped in a mixture of chloride of sulphur and sulphide of
carbon, or in sulphide of potassium. But in whatever way the sulphurization is
effected, it does not take place uniformly over the whole of the mass. To
judge by its reaction with solvents, there scem to be two different compounds,
besides which there is also unaltered caoutchoue.

Although gutta-percha adapts itself to manufacturing processes more
easily than caoutchoue, it yet gains by sulphurization, becoming thereby more
elastic and insensible to changes of temperature as well as to solvents. Better
still than pure gutta-percha is a mixture of both substances.

It can be said that sulphurization has given an endless variety to the use of
those substances. Nothing could prove this more than a visit to the industrial
exhibitions of London, Munich, and Paris. At the first named, extraordinary
interest was excited by a collection of gutta-percha manufactures, prepared by
natives of India, to the exhibitor of which (W. Kerr, of Singapore) the prize
medal was awarded. ~

The chief representatives of this branch of industry are North America,
England, and France, and the master in it is Goodyear, whom his invention
promises to make immensely rich. Not only the manufacturers of his country
are tributary to him, on account of his patent, but also numerous firms in
France. For a time Goodyear was the lion of the whole Union. A country-
man of his, however, (Mr. Day,) contested his right to the monopoly, and this
gave rise to a gigantic lawsuit, which agitated the whole Union, the most cele-
brated lawyers, and among them the great statesman Daniel Webster, pleading
on the one side or the other.

The manufacture of India-rubber goods was everywhere very limited
before the invention of vulcanization; since 1844, however, this immensely

218 CAOUTCHOUC AND GUTTA-PERCHA.

important invention has opened to the plant-juice almost all branches of
human industry. The importation of that gum and the amount of goods
manufactured from it are increasing with astonishing rapidity. Most of the
factories are in the States of New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Rhode
Island, and Gonneeticut. Thousands of people find there employment and
gain. The work is chiefly done by boys and girls, but adult men, and even
artists, are variously employed. One of the most important articles ig springs
for railroad cars, the patented monopoly for which, in the Union, belongs to the
“New England Car Spring Company,” which yearly works up about 400,000
pounds of the raw material. For some other articles its consumption is equally
immense. Thus several million pairs of India-rubber shoes are yearly manufac-
tured in the United States, the “ Hayward Company” producing daily several
thousand pairs. Some of the finest shoes, such as would preserve their gloss
after the longest sea-voyage, are manufactured by “Hartshorn & Co.,” in
Providence.

And yet the working up of this peculiar product of natures still in its infancy ;
every day discloses new ways of using it. Already attempts are being
made to coat the submarine telegraph wires with India-rubber, and. this sub-
stance is also to be used for nautical charts, instead of paper. As it can be
rolled into sheets of the greatest thinness, it seems to be destined to replace
paper in various respects. Maps, globes, &c., are already prepared from it. An
extraneous circumstance will promote this development. It is already regarded
as a fact that the consumption of paper is now out of proportion to the produc-
tion of the raw material necessary for it, to wit, rags. All efforts to check the ©
increase of this disproportion, through the use of other raw materials, have as
yet produced but an incomplete—by no means effective—result. This is par-
ticularly noticeable in the North American Union, which, as of so many other
things, can boast of a grand journalistic and other literary productiveness, and
vainly looks for raw materials in the European market for its immense paper con-
sumption. The remedy will not be long sought for; the indications are already
given. Bleached gutta-percha, especially, is better adapted for lithographic
printing than the finest Chinese paper; it yields really admirable copies. By
wetting it with a solution of gutta-percha in sulphuretted carbon, printing paper
can most easily be transformed into writing paper. ,

A peculiar branch of this new industry is the now immense production of
toys for children. However sad a part the German may play in his own house,
and however grievous the offence this subjects him to on the, part of proud na-
tions, the honor of being the teacher of mankind remains to him intact. Ger-
man scientific industry labors for the benefit of the whole universe. Thus
Nuremburg can boast of having been for centuries the privileged teacher of the
children of all nations and races ; its toys contributing to develop the first ideas
in the children’s world. But this privilege is now contested by the industry
of the United States. Instead of the harmless dogs and cats imported from
Nuremberg, babies receive there as toys India-rubber eagles, horses, lions, and
leopards, destined to rouse their power of observation. The importation of
German toys has suffered by it, but the industrial products of Nuremberg, or
what goes by that name, will not easily yield the ground. At the Paris ex-
hibition we saw a host of those North American toys, but these were deficient
in neatness and taste; they entirely lacked the gracefulness of the Nuremburg,
* and especially of the Wurtembergian manufactures, which at the Munich Exhibi-
tion so vividly brought back to our mind all the charms of our half-forgotten
childhood. Already at the London Exhibition the new American articles of
India-rubber manufacture became objects of general attention. Charles Goodyear,
of New Haven, Connecticut, and Charles Mackintosh & Co., the two principal
representatives of the cauotchoue industry in America and England, were the

CAOUTCHOUC AND GUTTA-PERCHA. 219

only receivers of the great council medal, other prize medals being awarded to
two American, three English, two French, and one German firms.

The American division of the Paris Exhibition owed its principal attraction to
its numberless India-rubber articles. A new kind of vulcanized caoutchoue was
chiefly noticed—another triumph of Goodyear’s inventive genius. We refer to
the so-called hard caoutchouc. When caoutchouc receives an admixture of
about a fifth of its weight in sulphur, the mixture being heated to 150° and
some asphalt being added, a mass is gained which equals marble in hardness,
and is capable of an extremely beautiful polish. The manifold applications
which this valuable invention has already found, allow us to realize the extraor-
dinary extension of which that branch of industry is capable. Hard caoutchoue
is a substitute, not only for ebony, horn, tortoise-shell, ivory, and whale-bone,
but also for iron, which so easily rusts in damp air.

People gazed there with admiration at handles of knives, and rifle stocks,
adorned with the finest and most artistic reliefs, at opera-glasses, and a thousand
other optical instruments, or articles of cabinet ware, which were formerly man-
ufactured of ebony or buffalo’s horn. There were also exhibited richly gilt pieces
of furniture, wrought entirely of this new material, as well as articles of vertu
set with genuine pearls, and various utensils ornamented with Chinese paintings.
We observed further musical instruments, such as violins, clarionets, and trum-
pets. Whenever we visited the exhibition we could not refrain from admiring
the exercises executed on one of those trumpets, shortly before the close, which
was indicated by the ringing of all the bells contained in the building. To
make the contents of the whole collection more complete, we must add candela-
bras, an electric machine, very flexible whips and canes, surgical instruments
of every kind, powder-horns, various seals, printing type, spools, shuttles,
slates. Large sheets of hard caoutchouc, destined for the plating of ships,
attracted particular attention. The low price, the slight weight, and the inde-
structibility of this new material will soon entirely supersede the now usual
copper plating. At Havre and New York the new method of coating vessels
has already been tried in the dock-yards of most prominent ship-builders.
Ships have sailed from both ports for long voyages, and nobody doubts that on
their return the theory will be confirmed by experience. At Plymouth, England,
on the proposition of Mr. Forster, of the royal navy, the outsides of plank are
coated with gutta-percha.

Neither was the art of printing forgotten in this rich collection A thick
quarto volume contained the history of that branch of industry on which we here
comment. ‘The leaves challenged destruction by water, being made of vulcan-
ized caoutchouc, as the elegant binding was of the kind designated as vulcanite.
It is greatly to be regretted that this invention was made at so late a period;
made earlier, it might have saved us many treasures of antiquity. The deluge
itself would have been powerless to destroy such written monuments.

Of the articles of vulcanized caoutchouc contained in the American division
we must chiefly mention, besides toys already alluded to, maps, a great variety
of water-proof articles of dress, water-proof military tents, and very carefully
worked pontoons.

Young as this branch of industry is, it has already achieved wonders. Not
content with alleviating the sufferings of man, gladdening the heart of children,
and saving from floods the manuscripts of authors in the archives of nations,
it continually seeks new paths for its progress. Side by side with the neatest
little shoes that would have graced the feet of a Chinese lady, there could
he seen gigantic boots, reminding one of seven-miles boots of the fairy tales,
as well as specimens for the most varied deformities of the human foot. A
certain kind of shoes and boots at first observation appeared a perfect riddle,
but their distinctive feature was explained to consist in ventilating appliances.

The manufacture of hard caoutchouc is also extensive in France, owing

220 CAOUTCHOUC AND GUTTA-PERCHA.

chiefly to the enterprising spirit of Charles Morey, who, having bought of
Goodyear the exclusive privilege of the use of his invention for fifteen years,
has shared it with many others willing to pay for it. Thus the French-Ameri-
can Company, which owns a large factory at Beaumont, in the department of
Seine et Oise, possesses the exclusive right of manufacturing combs, for which
production the first class medal of the French exhibition was awarded to it.
The French company, which has factories at Lille and St. Dennis, has the ex-
clusive right of manufacturing handles of knives and other cutlery, while the
Goodyear company has alone the right of preparing all kinds of hard caoutchoue
substitutes for whalebone in its various applications. Other privileges are
similarly distributed. Charles Morey himself lately founded a factory at Metz,
which produces a numberless variety of articles of caoutchouc, as well as gutta-
percha.

The chaotic variety of articles manufactured in France of common or vulean-
ized caoutchoue and gutta-percha is almost bewildering. Elastic textures of
every description, (silk, linen, cotton,) elastic stockings for persons suffering with
the gout, gaiters, garters, suspenders, drawers; elastic bands, cords, belts,
telegraph wires; aprons, window shades, carpets, gloves; stopples, bungs, diving
apparatus, life-boats, bathing tubs; mattresses, pillows, tents; numberless articles
for hunters, fishers, travellers, and photographers; utensils for the preservation
of acids, bottles of every kind, cases, balloons, doll-heads, spinning cards, hurdles,
troughs, pumps, umbrellas; these, and a thousand other objects, were shown at
the Paris exhibition in the most charming disorder.

THE PRODUCTS

OF THE

COMBUSTION OF GUN-COTTUN AND GUNPOWDER

UNDER CIRCUMSTANCES ANALOGOUS TO THOSE WHICH
OCCUR IN PRACTICE.

BY LIEUTENANT VON KAROLYIL*

REPRINTED FROM THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE OF OCTOBER, 1863, WITH REMARKS BY DR. B. F. CRAIG.

‘THE gun-cotton manufactured according to Major General Freiher yon
Lenk’s method at Hirtenberg, near Wiener Neustadt, has, in consequence of
special previous experiments, been used by the Genie corps for mining pur-
poses, and notwithstanding the fact that there are still numerous difficulties in
the way of its use for gun charges, it is also used by the Royal Imperial Ar-
tillery for hollow projectiles.

The first-mentioned use led the Genie committee, to which I belong, to:
cause experiments to be made which are calculated to give greater insight into
the chemical deportment of this substance. Among these is the attempt to
ascertain the products of combustion of the gun-cotten produced in Hirten-
berg; and in the course of the investigation it seemed advisable to extend the
method I used to gunpowder.

I.—ANALYSIS OF THE PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION OF GUN-COTTON.

The rapid deflagration of gun-cotton, and its necessary accompaniment, the
bursting action, prevented me from using in the analysis of the products of
combustion the excellent method which Professor Bunsent devised for obtain-
ing the combustion products of gunpowder for the purpose of analysis. It
was necessary to effect the combustion zz vacuo, and for this purpose I used a
eudiometre about a metre in length, in which, instead of two wires, as in the
ordinary eudiometre, a single very thin platinum wire was drawn across. 'T'o
this from 15 to 20 milligrammes of gun-cotton were aflixed, the tube filled
with mercury, and the Torricellian vacuum produced in the usual manner.
By means of a galvanic battery the wire could be ignited, and hence the gtn-
cotton exploded; thereupon all eudiometrical operations were carried out in
the tube in the usual manner after a preliminary experiment had shown that

* Translated from Poggendorff’s Annalen, April, 1863, by Dr. Atkinson, Royal Military
Collere, Sandhurst.

+ Phil. Mag., vol. xv, p 489.

PP seal GUN-COTTON AND GUNPOWDER.

the gas produced in this manner consisted of nitrogen, binoxide of nitrogen,
carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, marsh gas, and aqueous vapor.

°

Volume. | Pressure.| Temp. | Vol. at 0°

and J m.
°

Original volume. ...---.------------------- 374.53 0. 1156 12 42.3)
Thin Jive) Siketehany lope (OS a Ono Sab BenpEeeee pees 415. 83 0. 1768 95 54.56
After absorption of NO?.....-..------------ 361. 80 0. 1078 11.2 37,47
After absorption of @O?.....--.------------ 328. 06 0. 0850 10.5 26. 8d
Aifemauciian Olean. 22 ses. tence +. cn - ol ae A831. 25 0. 2372 LPR 109. 26
After addition of oxygen------------------- 497.56 0. 2510 12.5 119, 41
After explosion ...---------- -------------- 466, 21 0, 2212 11.2 99, 07
After absorption of CQ?..------------------ 430, 57 0. 1855 10. 4. 76. 97
Ati ncalinoreyo ry BREE Bs BAS SRS SS Seca asec 477.25 0. 2301 aE) 105, 29
After explosion .......------ -------------- 443, 38 0. 1983 12.6 84. 08

The quantity of NO? and CO? is obtained from the absorptions, the quantity
of water from the increase in volume in the steam-bath ; the quantity of nitro-
gen is obtained from the volume 76.97, which remains after removing the car-
bonic acid resulting from the combustible gases, by subtracting the uncombined
oxygen and the nitrogen contained in the atmospheric air added; while the
combustible gases are calculated from the formule in Bunsen’s gasometri¢
method,

Cabrantngg sie GSU oo sO S 2 Se ee Pees uy eta
Jk 21) SLE ia a i ee ee ne em eae, a mete aa = aes

oO
EW SAENOREN ise daisies eynye eh ele mien PAA ca N dy hs SARL shat ve shy —=P—P,

in which P is the quantity of combustible gases, P, the carbonic acid produced
in combustion, Py the oxygen used in combustion.
Hence the gases from gun-cotton contain in 100 parts—

|
|

By volume. By weight.
i

Comegii@ Crs eatabee Santee ase Sees soso deeHabe SESSA TSE Seis se 28. 55 28. 92
(CunliGnike el Sogsecsocesen cds Soe mseieds- soe Doder Ee atoeted Shoal 30,43
RGIS CP) BBE ia Sees Sec Seee ME CO ASS Geo rne PSP Heese. 55 oo 11.17 6. 47
MORI GON MIUTOREN 2/2 oc) to < clseye shee claire oa Sion cies cee 8.83 9.59
i eee eae se artes ee oer cere enem on sa 8.56 8.71
(CEHIGI Se cope Sree oteE Meee Aas Beat. a ae ae teen Canerece Risto. 1 1.85 1. 60
AGMEOUS MAP OL sue cinco =c msec ote ee me sie si crepe orate So ene ee 21.93 14.2

The gun-cotton used had the average composition C*H?™N°O*, from which,
after subtracting the results of the analysis, the separated carbon is obtained}
which is included in the above analysis.

This simple and apparently faultless method has repeatedly shown that, by
using a somewhat large quantity of gun-cotton under the same circumstances,
when therefore the combustion takes place under comparatively greater pres-
sure, the quantities of the products of combustion change, and the quantity of

GUN-COTTON AND GUNPOWDER. 235

binoxide of nitrogen diminishes as the pressure increases. Hence the deoxida-
tion of nitrogen-compounds during the combustion takes place the more com-
pletely the greater the work which the gun-cotton has to perform during its
combustion.

This circumstance suggested to me the idea of exposing the gun-cotton
during its combustion to a determinate resistance, and regulated so that it just
gives way at the moment the gun-cotton is completely burnt away. This
condition led me to the experiment of placing a vessel filled with gun-cotton
which offered the necessary resistance, in a 60-pr. mortar, which was then ex-
hausted and the gun-cotton exploded by galvanism. s

The resistance of the explosion vessels must be so chosen that the gas in
the mortar, after explosion, has an excess of pressure of half an atmosphere,
in order that it may subsequently be transferred to the measuring vessels.

The explosion vessels which I used were made according to the directions
of the late Lieutenant.Colonel Ebner, and consisted of hollow cast-iron cylin-
ders closed at one end, while at the other was a nut through which the ar-
rangement for a galvanic explosion passes. For this purpose the nut is pro-
vided with an excavation in which is a thin platinum wire fastened on the one
hand to the insulated copper wire, and on the other to the copper wire which
passes directly through the nut. Outside the cover the wires are bent into
knots, which, as previously mentioned, serve to support the cylinders and to
complete the voltaic circuit.

The weight of the gun-cotton whose gases shall fill the exhausted mortar
of 5,216 cubic centimetres contents so that there shall be the tension above
mentioned, I have empirically determined, and find that it is 10 grammes.
The fact that 10 grammes of cotton somewhat compressed occupy a space of
10.5 centimetres in length and 2 centimetres in diameter, determined the inter-
nal dimensions of the cylinder. The thickness of the sides of the cylinder
was also obtained from an empirical experiment, which showed that with a
thickuess of 8 millimetres the cylinder just exploded with production of flame,
and that thus, in accordance with the condition stated, the gun-cotton burns
away the moment the cylinder burst. JI must here mention a peculiar cireum-
stance which attracted my attention in determining the thickness of the side
of the cylinder, and which serves to characterize gun-cotton. For the above
investigation I successively filled, with gun-cotton cylinders 4, 6, and 8 milli-
metres thick in the side and exploded them in a hole. Although the cylinders
of 4 and 6 millimetres in thickness contained comparatively a larger charge,
the pieces produced were considerably larger than those of the cylinder 8 mil-
limetres in thickness. The former were often only split lengthwise, their cover
and bottom remained unchanged, while the pieces of the cylinder of 8 milli-
metres in thickness were scarcely larger than hazel-nuts.

The above bursting vessels might also probably be constructed of glass.
Very strong, thick glass tubes are taken, and at each end corks cemented in,
one of which has been provided with a galvanic conduction and the small
platinum wire. The length of the vessels and the thickness of their sides
could then be regulated by the quantity of gas and the desired resistance.

The qualitative analysis of the products of the combustion of gun-cotton
under the circumstances described gave carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, nitrogen,
marsh gas, and a trace of a sulphurous gas, (probably a bisulphide of carbon
compound,) which, from its small quantity, escaped analysis and could only be
detected by the smell. This probably arises from a small trace of sulphuric
' acid adhering to the gun-cotton, which either was not removed in washing, or

by subsequent treatment with potash remained as sulphate.

224 GUN-COTTON AND GUNPOWDER.
The quantitative gas analysis was made according to the following plan:

Absorption analysis.

Volume. | Pressure.| Temp. | Vol. at 0°
and | metro
fo)
Original volume: .----- -..------------+---- 114.78 0. 6242 19.1 66. 94
After absorbing CO?-.--- een. see 84, 88 0. 6048 20.2 47.81

Combustion analysis.

Vol. at 0°
and 1 metre

Volume. | Pressure.

Onennalsyo lume cere eee eee ere 46. 72
ATieTrAdditiOMl OL eit sc-clees - c= Seta cscs <2. - 87.75
Atiter Ad dition On OXY PCN eee. eee eae 121.98
ASO? CRG OEM. 5 355 Bes see Gasopsssce caeace 91.71
After absorption of CO?...---.----.-------- 59,19
Mera GitONs Ofdis 2 Sasi< cocincis Gee iee's seer 101. 32
ANOINe <p loplONet esa b= 2ee)--e seen eee 55,15

The quantity of carbonic acid obtained from the absorption analysis
==19.13. The nitrogen found by known methods is 11.37 volume. ‘The
combustible gases are determined by the formula already mentioned in the
case of the analysis in the Torricellian vacuum, as

Warpomicomide cts fog. 45h ke aki he =P, * 26.01
Miron) NIN) Qu, Sakis TU UE, SPC Oo he Pt 651
IEMyaromen Gey Oh 2.00 5. Ou) GA == PP 283

in which P=35.35, P,; 32.52, P,—27.44. The gun-cotton used in the
analysis corresponded to the formula C*H'N°O*, from which the water which
cannot be directly determined, as well as the eliminated charcoal, may be found.
Hence the mixture of gun-cotton gases consists of—

By volume. | By weight.

Carbonic oxide

SESS USES ASO Sana SSR BEe BeeOe San Sebo2 29. 97
un umicacilnins 25/5222 Js ee es Sk ee 33. 86
Mamehigense ee soc cn! 2. ht eee. cael os de 4.28
LEN UW (EG 0). S25 Se ea ea SU, AE RE BRINE 5, 7 0. 24
Lian. SOE ee eee ee) 2 pea ea ee eg DI Hi 13. 16
POETS Ube dency hais NR aan glee SET: |e FRR Sally ees 1. 62 .
AQUEOURMVAPOD ee cteeeet os oo. cass camer ce tise boeee oo eee 16. 87

100. 00

GUN-COTTON AND GUNPOWDER. 225

As previously mentioned, the bursting vessels were filled with 10 grammes
of cotton, which, by an accurate measurement, was found to yield a quantity
of gas of 5,740 cubic centimetres at 0° and | metre pressure. The contents
of the mortar at 16° and 0.7382 metre pressure amounts to 5,292 cubic centi-
metres ; the quantity of gas issuing at this pressure amounted to 2,939 cubic
centimetres ; hence 10 grammes gun-cotton yielded 8,231 cubic centimetres at
16° and 0.7382 metre pressure. If the quantity of gas is calculated from the
results of the analysis it is found that 10 grammes of gun-cotton yield 5,764.2
of gases, which sufliciently agrees with the quantity actually found.

Comparing the results of the above described analysis with those of the
analysis in the Torricellian vacuum, it is found—

(1.) That the gases in both cases are combustible from the large quantity
of carbonic oxide they contain.

(2.) That the gases produced im vacuo contain a considerable quantity of
binoxide of nitrogen, while by burning gun-cotton under appropriate resist-
ance, the nitrogen compounds are deoxidized in favor of the carbon in marsh
gas and of the hydrogen, by which an increase in the carbonic oxide, carbonic
acid, water, and a separation of free hydrogen, are caused. Hence it follows
that the red gun-cotton vapors can never occur if the entire gun-cotton is burnt
away at the moment in which it begins to overcome the resistance offered to it.

These facts have a practical application in the use of gun-cotton to mining
purposes.

Il.—ANALYSIS OF THE PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION OF GUNPOWDER.

After finding that the combustion of gun-cotton under circumstances re-
»sembling those which occur in mines is of decisive influence on the products

evolved, it appeared desirable ‘to investigate the combustion of gunpowder
under similar circumstances. Unfortunately, since my investigations had a
specifically military object, I could only analyze the Austrian small-arms and
ordnance powder; hence only a superficial comparison can be instituted with
the results which Protessor Bunsen obtained with freely burning sporting
powder.

The combustion of the gunpowder was effected in the exhaused mortar in
the same way as the combustion of the gun-cotton, with the exception that, on
account of the smaller action of the powder, aud in order to obtain as large a
quantity of gas, the exploding vessels had to be larger, but with thinner sides
than those in which the gun-cotton was exploded. The excavation in the
cores was filled with meal powder.

The composition of the two kinds of powder used for investigation are ob-
tained from the following analysis :

Ordnance powder —4.5487 grammes gave 3.3562 grammes saltpetre and
11923 gramme of a residue insoluble in water. Bisulphide of carbon dis-
solved 0.5823 sulphur. The remainder was charcoal.

Small-arms powder.—8.8653 grammes contained 6.8408 saltpetre ; the resi-
due of 2.0245 grammes contained 0.765 gramme sulphur, and there remained
1.2595 gramme of charcoal. The organic analysis of the charcoal, carefully
freed from sulphur, gave—

For ordnance powder.

LORE WT IOS a 8 2 bile Sree nies ot SE aaPaNEMeRRena Sy 0-5. Ra 81.200
eae retreat ae. RM 2.865
“TE Sac Brn eae ah seep il ue bar ace al at earn S02. Ea eae 13.599
RD hil > a sR Bs oa TR ite piel aa AIR A 1 ly a ee 2.336

100.000

15 s

226 GUN-COTTON AND GUNPOWDER.

For small-arms powder.

Oarban 2. sc. 6 cece soe tee mee te eo nln a a cee ae one alo al cle 82.90
Pydt0gen. ~~ = nn oe nena oe oan cima atic Bees 2.99
rye face enc - ye mecca oe mame cigs eee ie eae 12 14
Pe ns ck ea mre ie wis Se, Ie jes me Sins = = alata li ce eee 1.97

100.00

Hence the percentage composition of both these kinds of powder is as
follows :
Ordnance powder.

Nitrate of potash. ...--.--------+--- +--+ eee reece eee eee eee eeeee 73.78
Sulphur DN on ok & ew oreo ea iahe pe jaiaie erste os aa alatetataloheual Neralel wetaletatelsdetrd 12.80
‘ Carbon. 4 -' =. P82 D0 -- jen nee hee see an Seen 10.88

Hydrogen ...... -----------2----22 eee 2 eee eee eee 0.38

Charcoal .- OXYgen ..-.-- «2-2-2 ee ee cee ee reer eee e eee ee 1.82
ARTic Bs, cae cokes cose c.o\a = Bt ole erate een a eee ete ieee olor 0.31

100.00

Nitrate of potash ...... ------------ eee eee eee ee eee eee eee eee TiS
Sulphur ..........---- 22-222 eee eee eee ee eee ee ee eee eee eee 8:63
@arboniisck Je cioc., ae ed See ee eee eee 11.78

{ Hydrogens's. .40cie 0 e es ne ec cee cee eee ee ece ene se 0.42
Char coal ohh Oxygen ot Mess ct che eee ee. eee eee it 79
WA She oB ie cd saraleicte ee Sl Sk SS rere wh rererarevarorevaes taba tere 0.28

100.00

The composition of the powder analyzed by Bunsen and Schischkoff was—.

WNuteateioe sotasitosc¢ se keel jeu 2 ok eee wel. poor pe eee een 78.99
sulphur S24). -~ | .a0he 0.80 FOL. - poe el trem nente ans So 9.84
( Carbone... csc 22 ee eee ee eee 7.69

Ei ydroren go. 5. a. = oo on ep ee 0.41

Charcoal .. Oxygen ee ee boats Pett eieln ane SE hee eee 3.07
ASS ean omc cRepace eve Spancie ice ae Ce aL eee 0.00

100.00

For the qualitative analysis of the products of combustion, two cylinders were
filled with the two kinds of powder, made air-tight, and successively exploded in
the mortar in the manner described.

For both kinds there were found in the solid residue: (1) sulphate of potash,
(2) carbonate of potash, (3) hyposulphite of potash, (4) sesqui-carbonate of
ammonia, (5) sulphur, (6) charcoal, (7) sulphide of potassium. The latter,
in the case of the small-arms powder, was only formed in very small quantities.

The gaseous products of combustion were: (1) nitrogen, (2) carbonic acid, (3)
carbonic oxide, (4) hydrogen, (5) sulphuretted hydrogen, (6) marsh gas, and
a very small quantity of a bisulphide of carbon compound, which was distinetly
recognized by its odor as being that produced in the gases from gun-cotton.
The whole mixture is colorless, and contains no fume or vapor.

GUN-COTTON AND GUNPOWDER. vp a

(a) Ordnance powder—For the quantitative determination of the products
of combustion 36.8366 grammes were used.

The gas passed into three absorption tubes amounted to 75.3 cubic centimetres ;
the gas issuing from the mortar until the rest was under the atmospheric pres-
sure amounted to 5480.7 cubic centimetres at 16° C. and 0.749 metre pressure ;
under these circumstances the mortar holds 5216 cubic centimetres; hence the
above quantity yielded 7621.96 cubic centimetres gas at 0° and 1 metre pressure.

The absorption analysis produced—

Vol. at 0°
Volume. | Pressure.| Temp. |and1 metre
pressure.
°
Original volume....-.--.-----------+--+----- 16, 2 51. 63
After absorption of CO? and HS....-..-.-.-- 14.3 29. 12

From the estimation of the potash bulb with iodine solution, it followed that
the sulphuretted hydrogen corresponded to 0.44 division. Hence the above gas
consisted of 0.44 vol. sulphuretted hydrogen, 22.07 carbonic acid, and of 29.12
nitrogen and combustible gases.

The explosion analysis of the gas freed from sulphuretted hydrogen and car-
bonic acid and transferred to the eudiometer was as follows:

Vol. at 0°
Volume. | Pressure.; Temp. |and1 metre

pressure.

fe)

Original volume. ........---..------------- 113. 26 0. 2729 15.6 28.8
AL LeraCCINOM) Ol Gls cosccctecc< S=pacc snmnis' 183. 36 0, 3494 16.8 60. 36
After addition of oxygen. -.-..-----.-------- 204, 32 0. 4295 16.4 Ae79
After explosion .....------ -+----------+.-- 185, 62 0. 3522 15.4 61. 89
After absorption of CO?....-.:.-.+--4..--: 167.90 0. 3476 15,1 55, 31
Aner addition: Of ERoos on eas-<s stems eis 224, 67 0. 4068 16. 2 86, 39
After explosion. .-.-...-------------------- 166. 38 0. 3395 15.7 52. 79

By applying the formule of the gasometric methods. already mentioned in
the analysis of gun-cotton, since the gases are qualitatively the same, the values
are obtained, for carbonic oxide 5.21, hydrogen = 3.03, marsh gas = 1.38,
and nitrogen 19.18.

Hence the total gas calculated for 100 parts consisted of—

Vols

Gorhonke ewes. dioiteisiea, 40 slo BO tosis okik kee, COAL 8 42.74
Sulphurettedsbydrogen Lwin spies pies oie se SUB PUS UL 0.86
Carbonic Oxide ys: = -,- -:-\« pvae:epomedis drain ae DIELIGOD RUM, PU ALS 10.19
Mawah passiscislss il) .wombiess Dige Als i. SL 2.70
Bl ydmogern sis wiecses Ch. sidicpniaiaje Sd calaegiee ye 21 ee ilaisio dl 5.93
Wateogenl” «ici Beit Le Glaidisise-chaba) PROWL eA MH Ld OE 37.58.

100.00

The determination of the solid residue in the mortar was effected, after remoy-
ing the gases, by digestion with water, which was drawn off through a tap in
the bottom and rapidly filtered.

228 GUN-COTTON AND GUNPOWDER.

The results of the analyses were as follows :—

‘1. Sulphide of potassium.—The entire filtered liquid was digested in three
large boiling flasks with well-ignited oxide of copper, thereupon filtered, and
the residue dissolved in fuming nitric acid. Treated with nitrate of baryta,
it gave 0.1015 grammes of sulphate of baryta, which corresponds to 0.0478
grammes sulphide of potassium in the residue of 36.8366 grammes powder.

. The liquid filtered trom the oxide of copper was made up to 6 litres for the
sake of further investigation.

2. Carbonic acid.—A litre of this liquid gave with nitrate of silver a pre-
cipitate of carbonate and sulphide of silver. Treated with ammonia, the car-
bonate dissolved, and was separated from sulphide by a weighed filter, and pre-
cipitated in the filtrate as chloride of silver by means of hydrochloric acid. Its
weight amounted to 3.0475 grammes, which corresponds to 0.4687 grammes
combined carbonic acid; hence in the entire residue there were 2.8126 grammes
combined carbonic acid.

As a control, the carbonic acid was determined by chloride of manganese by
mixing a litre of the liquid with a solution of this salt which had been previously
fused; a precipitate of carbonate of manganese was obtained, the carbonic acid
of which, determined in the usual manner, corresponded to 2.8337 grammes
in the entire residue.

3. Hyposulphite of potash.—The sulphide of silver (2) weighed on the tared
filter, when dried at 120°, 0.2261 grammes, which corresponds to 0.1733
grammes hy posulphite of potash; hence the entire residue contained 1.0400
grammes hyposulphite of potash.

A determination of the hyposulphite was also made by metrical analy-
sis. A litre of the solution was acidulated with acetic acid, mixed with
starch, and determined by means of a standard solution of iodine. A litre
pp anal cubic centimetres iodine solution ; hence, according to the formula
——— =, in which ¢=22.57, a= 0.000517; this litre contained
0.1746 grammes hyposulphite of potash, and the entire residue 1.0476 grammes
of this salt.

4. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia.—According to Bunsen’s method, a litre of
the liquid was boiled with caustic potash, the distillate passed into a solution of
hydrochloric acid of known strength, and the hydrochloric acid which had not
been changed to chloride of ammonium determined with a standard ammonia
solution. I found @==0.04853, the quantity of hydrochlorie acid taken;
t— 19.87, the number of divisions of an ammoniacal liquid which would poms
saturated a volume of hydrochloric acid equal to that taken with ¢/= 41.30
divisions of the burette. Using the formula z= ae eS : aft—t) , I found
in the 4 litre the sesquicarbonate of ammonia to be 0.041275 iiteey hence
0.9908 gramme corresponds to the entire quantity of sesquicarbonate of Saone

Br Carbonate of potash.—Subtracting the carbonic acid in the sesquicarbon-
ate of ammonia 0.5541 gramme from the total quantity found (2),— 2.8337
grammes, there remains a quantity corresponding to the carbonate of potash
==2.2796 grammes. Hence the entire residue contains 7.1498 grammes car-
bonate of potash.

6. Sulphate of potash.—A litre of the liquid mixed with chloride of barium
gave 3.0244 grammes sulphate of baryta, which corresponds to 2.2683 grammes
\ ae of potash for one litre of liquid, and 13.6100 grammes for the whole
residue.

7. Potash To determine the entire quantity of potash contained in the
various salts, a litre of the liquid:was carefully evaporated to dryness with sul-
phurie acid and ignited in a platinum vessel, 3.8466 grammes of sulphate of

GUN-COTTON AND GUNPOWDER. ‘299

potash were thus obtained, corresponding to 2.0786 grammes of potash. Hence
100 grammes of ordnance powder contain 33.85 grammes of potash, which
agrees closely with the result of the direct analysis of the powder. After find-
ing, by direct observation, that 36.8366 grammes of the powder furnished
7621.9 cubic centimetres of gas, the composition of the products of combustion
of this powder may be stated as follows :—

SSM aerate OLAS: a4 2) (sabtneia Sew Wie ciieccake c's/sla's 4 Cee 2 sh ee 13.61
Demerarerol potas ys See oe Were om th ett os Sen vere ae Ala
Papocdlabiteol potaslns. a. - 222 ae ee Se eee See a 1.04
Sulphide: of. \potassiuitit.4... shies close ane ons seule 0.04
WhrarcGals S25 USA 7 ES Pic ya ae LD ur edie’ 0.94
| PLATT eR RE tet de ea etalk ah ine 4 Ld a age 1738
Sesquicarbonate Om AMMONIA es al, ees et a dee eee ee ER Meee ane 0.99
TRUELO REN Cpr laat sin ci ale seca sce pnwg wns cae nck ne oe ee TED 3.60
( ustta] Geo? Gee Vo) 1 Lane ep aden Ra ad LE EES SPEIER RCRA ROLAE EAI! ) RSS Lag 6.40
RaB IG Maleetusee ay Ses cs elt oo wees (SIS vedo ee oa ud Wes re 0.97
Siytlrowen 2 sas tae set a a eek ee a ret tae eater errant RS 0.04
Sulphuretted- hydrogen 15sec ese scec eee e crew tebe ik 0.10
MPaboh Pis< sc62s cess shee cece e stp h eee ee ee eenes teed eae 0.15
Se UNOS S SAS 228s SRS GOERS Bes Side aes Ss ee 0.07

36.82

in which sulphur and charcoal are calculated from the deficiency.

(6) Small-arms powder.—34.153 grammes were used for the combustion.
The quantity of the gaseous products was obtained from the following gaso-
metric experiments:

Absorption analysis.

Vol. at 0°
Volume. | Pressure.| Temp. and 1 metre
pressure.
1°)
Gngmal volambs-sress2ccs-2 tosses seals 136. 94 0. 6331 22.1 80. 21
After absorbing CO? and SH....--........- 75. 04 0. 5024 21.9 40. 46

If the solution of the potash-bulb is determined with solution of iodine, it
is found that 0.535 division corresponds to sulphuretted hydrogen, from which
it follows that the above quantity of gas consists of—

RMRNOMIC BE EUS). FAO NAMak UN ee tT, uti Sah eeleneustslaisle 39.22
Sulphuretted hydrogen. ...2....00.2.- Be EL PE ae EL NT EN 0.53
Combustible gases and nitrogen............... Gees. ene oe 40.46

230 GUN-COTTON AND GUNPOWDER.

The explosion analysis with the transferred gas gave—

a ee a ee Ca oe RES MeO eee an Mme s

Vol. at 0°
Volume. | Pressure. | Temp. jand 1 metre
pressure.
[e) .
Original volume. ..----~----------+ +--+ ---- 120. 12 0. 3432 20.4 38. 36
After addition of air-----..-----.----------- 198. 51 0. 4263 20.3 78.77
After addition of oxygen ----..----- -------- 230. 33 0. 4478 20.5 95, 89
After explosion..--..-.---------+++---++--- 201.14 0. 4323 19.6 81.47
After absorption of CO?..---.-------------- 189, 46 0. 4276 21.0 75, 23
After addition of H...---.----------------- 261. 02 0. 4817 21.2 116. 66
After explosion....-.------------+---+----- 174, 20 Q. 4130 18.3 67, 43
If the formule previously used be applied, we get—
Ginbonic acid ij. oe -ci enone bes pee cc ie eee ee core Se = 3.95
Hydrogen. --.-.- =. +200 ce nnn cee cnet seme se ce teens recesses 2 == 524
Miarah 9§)-4,-.<.i eck ppecrertoeereceree ppewer te saaccsr ee tErte = 2,99
Nitrogen ----..--- 2-22-22 ee eee eee eee cee eee ee eee == 26,88
Hence the small-arms: powder contains in 100 volumes—

Carbonic acid ....-- +--+ +++. eee ee eee ee eee eee ee ee eee teres 48.90
Sulphuretted hydrogen .-...-.-..-------- -----+----+-- e+-+------ 0.67
Camommie OS10C ec re eee ee cope ee a meen Ha) IGS 5.18
Uy) Beats GW 22 ee Sse ek a ce le cat eon 3.02
LOE Ci niceties <= 2 == Sse se = = 2 oleae en ee ae oe eee 6.90
Nitrogen 2.2... oils eie eine en sieielcisin's eine bsisinie ce nbn cl aeesdaee---s 35.33
100.00

The solid residue in the mortar was treated with hot water and the liquid
filtered. No sulphide of potassium was found to be present. The analysis
was executed in the same manner as with the ordnance powder.

From the results of this analysis and from those of the gas analysis, direct
measurement having shown that 34.153 grammes of ordnance powder give
7,738 cubic centimetres of gas, the following scheme for the products of com-
bustion of the ordnance powder may be given:

Sulnpate Gf poiushl=< 2. eae uaeinss > kee delte e-er eeeee S 12.354
Wacbonate lof potash | p.g ideals se <slp clog =e -G Gist Emer eee 7.096
iy posulphiteof potash <oo.- secieae.<intl- As iis cigs BEER SAE EU 0.605
Gharcoalle .20 2. cs rss ss dcte seni scare sc toon crete SACRE RNAS EINE 0.887
S/THND AUR S a LAS Si IN Rip A tt gs en EIR SIGS 5 2 Sa ete 0.397
Desqumearbonateor ammonig: >. c5.<2- 222 oS wie pee ge eee se ies 0.908
ONTTO SoMa revle aoe sae ce tte melee ae 2.5 c.c/e 2 eee tee eteeie ene = oe to
MU UCM TALC HACE yy 55 216. «in, oju ieee iain ci oo, cia, m 0 ee tee ais eee 7.442
Gir d SOTETLS > TIE SR SS bide Cs i iat a erly Jie bene esther. 0.504
ERY iO OM eee elene re eral oie ~, s.nin 0 FRA gaia ome) = © 6,5, 5 eae eae es ae eer 0.047
DUI pMUrctTea MV ULOP OM = 0 2 eae shee cam a 2:0 = oe emer ne Sete eee 0.079
eres eran rege & Seo SO Cae eS is eR emir nll Rt a ri 0 167
boyy beyth ep 95 (9504 Ce a telat te emi ale RR ee SA Mi LE all it Be oS a a 0.235

GUN-COTTON AND GUNPOWDER. 231

The results hitherto obtained for the products of combustion of both kinds
of powder may now be compared with each other, and also with those obtained
by Bunsen and Schischkoff in the analysis of sporting powder:

I.— Composition.
\

Sporting |Small-arms) Ordnance
powder. | powder. | powder.

77.15 73. 78

NasterOr POLE. he o> 35 pets angels nana nba’ pare one 78. 99 | }

oo SRR Ss Se ese ee = JAE CR Seah eaeoe 9. 84 8.63 | 12. 80
Warbonl 2126s Ns tS oath cee ene ke oe 7.69 | 11.78 10. 88
Hy dtorent wc at 355 bean erase = Se eh 0.41 0, 42 0. 38

Sree" y Oxygen 5 detestoh. -1-wsaeterc shoes 3.07 1.79 1.82
TAS Yas SAA ees ee et A ees Sane 0. 00 0. 28 | 0.31

oe

100. 00 100. 00 100. 00
|

Il.—Gaseous products of combustion by volume.

ISM E AES So5 Gos uecnbeoso Bone Tol p sc acocecme 2. Age 41.12 35. 33 37.58

CO HEDOUICIACL Oe reme sci michineise se see a inciae aiscere a as 52. 67 48. 90 42.74

RarbONiC OX10C).. << os amen ae asnaue vb aigmetasp eee 3. 88 5.18 10,19

LEGER s « Olae cao aEoone Sao desuoonoesac HonadsesssuS 1,21 6. 90 5. 93

Balpigrented Byarogen oe ooo). - cone mafrmmn migininanaisyeisins 0. 60 0. 67 0. 86

Orey fear: 2 Getto eee see eee as sec meer Behe O. So Asses OBL

Biarshie 38. eco tstew hid + enon andes gn ela es Sore eee es 3. 02 | 2.70
100. 00 | 100. 00 | 100. 00

IIl.— Total products of combustion by weight.

Renine OLipOnae tines cee ee ec oe eee asceiece eee tejod 42,97} 36.17 36. 95

Carbonate of Potashex: jek: 2 is os Sh ei ek Sete - 12. 64 20.78 19. 40

Hymposulphite tof potashie. 4). scisc-siysee ses = ees eK 3.27 LAN er 2. 85

Bulpimade'of potagsiunal. 626 ots £2. ew chee dal= eile ais Pailey Reactions ose 0. 11

Sulphocyanide of potassium ..............-----+------- ESN ee ae eae |S See ee,

iNrirate-of potashey% ta icles kako Nees eee ale Soon ee senor ee Samoan ee

Charcoal 2 271. -.sis.s.aslecnisieeieitoaisn's, sss sie nas ee ecmiebiee 0.73 2. 60 2.57

hal) 1 net ry ore PE Re ee ae tse Be ek 0,14 1.16 4. 69

Sesquicarbonate of ammonia........--.-.----.---.---- 2.86 2. 66 2.68

Nitgppenasisisct jos ethee ct doce tec eadeeetich eke hh !

BENE TTR TEC I RAE I(t: :

Warbomic Oxide po.2). osc )s'- <2 52 socdac coceittecias 9 ees

PUGOTOCC MN Won eee aoe tales ee sven selee ceeeeees sees

Sulphuretted hydrogen

“LS SELES Ss SEAS RN Sok ip Dae A Bd

PMSS DN PES) ere seeps om mig orca, Jae piacicie a mab elects motes |emneapoeea Se

eae ann amie pie ne Sanne peepee rer pe ser lac =e

A comparison of these results shows at first sight that, on the whole, the
products of combustion of powder are little dependent on the manner in which
the combustion takes place. But that the composition of the powder has a great
influence, is seen from the fact that in Bunsen’s powder, which contains much
nitre, nearly 4 per cent. of this substance are found in this residue; while, on
the other hand, in the residue of the ordnance powder, whieh contain less nitre,
almost seven per cent. of sulphur and charcoal are separated unburnt. The
influence of the composition on the nature of the products of combustion is still

232 GUN-COTTON AND GUNPOWDER.

more surprising. Where the reducing body preponderates, the combustion of
the carbon is more imperfect. Whereas the gases of sporting powder orly con-
tain three per cent. of carbonic oxide, the gas from ordnance powder contains
nearly ten per cent. The quantity of hydrogen and of marsh gas increase in
the same di.cction, so that the ordnance powder gas contains nearly twenty per
cent. of combustible gases. Hence it is not surprising that the gases of ordnance
powder, as wcll as those of gun-cotton, may be ignited, as direct experiment
showed, by a g!immering piece of wood.

There might apparently be no difficulty, from the results of these analyses,
in. arriving at a right composition of powder; yet in this respect practice pre-
fers its own empirical path. But in any case the results obtained serve as an
additional proof of the inaccuracy of the view which prevails in many chemical
text-books and in almost all artillery institutions—that powder must decompose,
in burning, into sulphide of potassium, carbonic acid, and nitrogen. If practice
has no other reason for the composition of powder than the possibility that
these products may occur, it is certainly allowable to attempt to prove experi-
mentally that the products of combustion, even under the circumstances which
prevail in practice, can never be formed alone, and that, indeed, one of them—
sulphide of potassium—in many cases is not formed at all.

DR. CRAIG’S REMARKS.

It will be seen from the foregoing that Lieutenant von Karolyi burnt gun-
cotton under two conditions, and determined for each the composition of the
resultant gases. In the one case he ignited a small quantity by means of a
voltaic current in an eudiometre which had been exhausted of air by the
Torricellian method, and in which, consequently, the cotton burned under very
small pressure. In the other, an iron cylinder was filled with gun-cotton,
placed in an exhausted vessel, and ignited in a similar manner, so that the
combustion went on under pressure until the enclosing tube was broken.
This increase of pressure was found to give rise to a modification in the com-
position of the resultant gases; and, for purposes of comparison, the results
in the two cases may be expressed in chemical symbols, with numbers aflixed,
which give with suflicient accuracy the relative amounts in volume.

Burning without | Burning under

Gas produced. epee ae
pressure. pressure.
pee. ee Seas Ae ey Sb. at ee 85 13
OES ciacoe tote eee Ee Re acid ool ete 220 250
RO Pee actos Sie oS o's a ath AE OD eld eae oft ind 285 290
eres tees ho. b=. cckttacmeseeeibetie ss ome assve es 190 210
Reese ON oS as Cacteece te eeekne x<2 cae ceeee se DO: | 2" a tate
Giese enaene see bas Be od IES 110 7

The interesting experiments of Mr. Abel on the combustion of gun-cotton
in the receiver of an air-pump exhausted to different degrees point to the con-
clusion that, in burning, gun-cotton is decomposed by the action of heat into
certain products, among which ay the binoxide and some of the higher oxides
of nitrogen, and a large quantity of combustible gases. These gaseous pro-
ducts react on each other with the disappearance of the oxides of nitrogen and
the production of new compounds if their temperature is maintained above a
certain point, but if they are allowed to expand into a vacuum as fast as they

GUN-COTTON AND GUNPOWDER. 233

are generated they cool so that their mutual action is prevented. The amount
of reaction between the first. products of decomposition will depend on their
temperature and on the time during which they are maintained at that tem-
perature.

The experiment of bursting a loaded shell cannot be said to present the
same circumstances as those which prevail when the explosive material is used
in a fire-arm; for, in the first place, that part of the charge which burns after
the rupture of the shell and the consequent expansion of the contained gases
does not burn under pressure; and, in the second place, the products even of
that portion of the combustion which antecedes the rupture of the shell are
not kept together at a high temperature as long as they are in the barrel of a
gun. If the cylinder used by Lieutenant von Karolyi had been of such
strength as to resist bursting, and the gases have been allowed to escape into
the exhausted vessel through a small vent, the circumstances would have been
more nearly approximated to those which occur in practice with fire-arms.

For the purpose of determining what is actually produced in the case pf the
firing of a gun, the most satisfactory plan would seem to be to screw the muz-
zles of a number of loaded musket barrels into a sufficiently strong and _air-
tight vessel, and, their vents being securely closed and the whole apparatus
exhausted by the air-pump, to fire them in suceession by the galvanic current,
and then examine the products according to the method followed by Lieutenant
von Karolyi.

In the barrel of a gun, especially when loaded with a heavy projectile, the
products of combustion remain under pressure and at a high temperature for a
comparatively long time, and the products of the explosion of Lieutenant von
Karolyi’s cylinders are such that, under these conaitions, we would expect
them to decompose each other. Thus in the case of gunpowder, sulphate of
potash was produced, together with unconsumed charcoal, sulphur, and various
combustible gases. Now we know that sulphate of potash, kept at a red heat
in contact with such reducing agents, will part with its oxygen, and be con-
verted into the sulphide.

Lieutenant von Karolyi finds mere traces of the sulphide of potassium
among his products, but, on the other hand, the residue left in the barrel of a
fire-arm after its discharge is found to consist mainly of this salt. This cir-
cumstance does not show conclusively that sulphide of potassium is the chief
solid product of the explosion, for it may have a special tendency to accumu-
late on the walls of the gun, being deposited on the cold metal from a state of
vapor; but the amount of its deposition makes it probable that it constitutes
no inconsiderable proportion of the products of combustion.

Some years ago Captain Rodman made certain experiments, in the course
of which he exploded gunpowder in shells of great strength, which had in’
them small vents through which the resultant gases could make their escape ;
this escape, however, requiring a measurable length of time. I obtained, by
the kindness of Captain Rodman, some of the solid residue left in the shell
after these explosions; but, when it reached me, it was in a moist and deli-
quesced condition, and had apparently suffered decomposition by exposure to
the atmosphere. When acted upon by dilute hydrochloric acid it evolved a
large amount of carbonic acid gas, and when treated with distilled water and
the liquor filtered, small precipitates only were produced by acid solutions of
chloride of copper and of chloride of barium, so that but little sulphur was
present either as sulphide or as sulphate. The only way in which I could
account for such a condition of things was by supposing that the mass had
originally contained sulphur in combination as sulphide of potassium, and that
this, by the action of the moisture and carbonic acid of the atmosphere, had
been transformed into carbonate.

234 COMBUSTION OF GUN-COTTON AND GUNPOWDER.

In comparing the results of the combustion of gun-cotton in a vacuum with
those produced by the explosion of an iron cylinder filled with it, it will be per-
ecived that the change from one series of products to the other involves an
increase in the volume of the evolved gases—an effect due chiefly, but not
wholly, to the heat produced by the chemical reaction between the nitric oxide
generated by the first act of combustion and the carburetted hydrogen present.

When gun-cotton, therefore, burns in a sufficiently strong and well-filled ves-
sel, it is resolved into gaseous products which immediately react on each other
with an increase in the temperature and tension of their mass, and on the sud-
denness of this reaction is probably due some part of the great percussive force
developed by the explosion of gun-cotton in strong vessels.

I believe that no determination has been made of the amount of heat evolved
by the explosion of gun-cotton.

The sums of the heat, and of the mechanical effects representing heat, pro-
duced by equal weights of gun-cotton and of gunpowder would not be very
different if assumed to be proportional to the amounts of oxygen concerned in
the chemical reactions in each case, but the greater volume of the gases evolved
from gun-cotton makes their actual temperature less and their mechanical effect
greater.*

The much greater heating effect, however, which gunpowder exerts upon the
gun from which it is fired is to be attributed not only to the higher temperature
and greater density of the products of explosion, but to the circumstance that
in the case of gunpowder sulphide of potassium is deposited on the walls of the
gun, probably from a state of vapor, imparting to the cold metal both its free
heat and its heat of condensation, the action being analogous to that of steam,
which, in condensing on a cold body, heats it much more rapidly than a cur-

rent of a non-condensible gas of the same temperature could have done.
B. F. CRAIG.

*Tt may be here remarked that the comparative mechanical energy developed in fire-arms
by gunpowder and by gun-cotton is to be estimated not by the amount of motion imparted
to the projectile, but by that imparted to the gun.

These two are different things, and the latter must always be greater than the former by
an amount equal to the vis viva with which the products of decomposition of the projectin
agent are expelled from the gun, and this vis viva must, of course, vary with the weight of
the explosive material.

This consideration makes it evident why, when a lesser weight of gun-cotton is substi-
tuted for a greater weight of gunpowder, the recoil of the gun is less, while the velocity of
the shot may be unchanged. B. F.C.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS FOR TESTING

THE

RESULTS OF PERSPIRATION AND RESPIRATION

IN THE PHYSIOLOGICAL INSTITUTE AT MUNICH.

BY PROFESSOR MAX PETTENKOFER.

TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN BY PROFESSOR A. TEN BROOK,

In order to determine the quantity of carbonic acid and water secreted by
the skin and lungs, various methods have been proposed. The methods of
Scharling, Vierordt, Valentin and Brunner, Regnault and Reiset, Smith and
others, with their results, are sufficiently known to every physiologist and
chemist. What has been justly objected to all methods hitherto applied to
men and the larger animals has been in reference essentially to two considera-
tions: first, that the degree of accuracy of the methods had not been ascer-
tained by test-experiments with known quantities of carbonic acid ;° and second,
that men and animals had been forced to respire under conditions more or less
unusual or oppressive, and hence not natural. I have, therefore, for years been
occupied with the thought of some method for determining with suflicient pre-
cision the quantity of carbonic acid which a man develops when moving and
breathing freely without the interposition of any apparatus whatever. The
investigations of Bischoff and Voit in regard to the nourishment of carnivorous
animals have shown that the carbonic acid passing off through the skin and
lungs cannot be with certainty calculated from the difference between the car-
bon taken in with the food and that eliminated in the urine and excrement,
taking into account also the weight of the body, because two unknown things,
carbonic acid and water, escape at the same time and in varying proportions,
through the skin and lungs. Since, then, there was a necessity for determin-
ing directly one at least of the two quantities, I resumed the attempt at a solu-
tion of the problem. I soon perceived that success was attainable only by
directing over the human body a current of air of measured and constant
force, and then determining the accession of carbonic acid and water to this
current of air. It very soon struck me that something like a parlor stove
might be adopted as a model. As long as the chimney draws, no smoke
escapes at the joints or door of the stove, but the outside air presses from all
directions into the stove in order to reach the chimney. If an exact measure-
ment, in the pipe which conducts the smoke from the stove to the chimney, of
the amount of air which moves in it is possible; if, further, the composition
of the air which enters the stove and passes from it can be ascertained from a
portion of it, then all the factors are obtained which are needed in order to
determine what admixture the air-current receives from the process of combus-
tion in the stove. In the plan which I devised the stove is represented by a
small chamber of sheet-iron, which I shall call the saloon, placed within a
larger apartment ; the former being eight Bavarian feet in extent each way,
with light admitted from the top and through windows on the sides. The
windows should be cemented and the walls and ceiling riveted as nearly as
possible air-tight. 'The door has movable openings, in order, when necessary,
to render the admission of air practicable at other points than the joints of the

936 PERSPIRATION AND RESPIRATION.

door. On the side opposite to the door, two openings, one below and the other
above, lead through two conducting pipes outside the small chamber into a
single and larger pipe, through which the air flows towards that portion of the
apparatus which performs the functions of a draught-chimney. ‘This portion,
which may be placed in another apartment of the house than that in which
the iron-chamber stands, consists of two suction-cylinders with hinge-valves,
which may be equally moved by a strong clock-work, with any desired force,
by means of a small steam apparatus. ‘The falling weight of the clock-work
is at each moment wound up again as fast as it descends. In this way a con-
stant current of air through the door of the iron-chamber to the suction-pumps
can be maintained. The air cannot, however, reach the suction-pumps without
passing through a measuring apparatus which is in constant operation. For
this purpose 1 have chosen a gas-clock, or stationary gas-meter, of such dimen-
sions that 3,000 English cubic feet per hour can be accurately measured by it.
Tn order to examine a portion of the air which enters through the door and
other apertures of the apparatus-room and passes out of the same by the united
conductor to the gas-meter, and from the ascertained difference in the amount
of water and carbonie acid, to be able to reckon the quantity which was added
inside of the apparatus, two aspirators* are employed, which draw uniformly
each a constantly equal portion of air. The water of the air is, after the
known method, absorbed by sulphuric acid and weighed; the carbonic acid is
ascertained by means of the air rising in small bubbles through a determinate
quantity of lime-water of known strength, and the lime-water finally is exam-
ined in regard to its amount of quicklime by treatment with diluted oxalic
acid, exactly as I have described on another occasion.

In order finally to be able to test the air which remains behind in the iron-
chamber of the apparatus, a suction and force pump is placed in connexion
with the pipe which conducts the air away, by the aid of which flasks holding
six to eight litres ean be filled with air, which can be tested in regard to its
amount of carbonic acid by lime-water. ‘The same pump serves also to ascer-
tain, at suitable times during the experiment, the fluctuations of the carbonic
acid in the air current. In addition to this, there is an arrangement which per-
mits the making trials, of any number and extent, without suffering any loss
of air for the measurement of the entire current. A flask is attached air-tight
to the pump, the air of which flask is perfectly replaced by continued pumping
with air from the conductor. The air forced from the flask is not allowed to
escape, but is conducted by an India-rubber tube back again into the current
which passes on to the gas-meter to a point, of course, where the determination
of the carbonic acid cannot be affected by it; there is, therefore, a flask of air
introduced below, and in its place a flask of air withdrawn from the apparatus.
In order that the current of air may not discharge any water by evaporation
from the large gas-meter, the air passes, before it enters the gas-meter, through
a standing cylinder filled with pieces of pumice-stone, which are to be kept
moist. Where the air passes out of the moistening apparatus a psychrometer
is placed in the pipe in order to show the temperature and moisture with which
it enters the gas-meter, and is measured. There are also in the conductor in
front of the moistening apparatus a psychrometer and several places for at-
taching tubes in order to take out air for experiment.

After communicating the plan which I had projected to the president of the
academy, Baron Von Liebig, and a few other associates in the same branch of
science, I applied to the technical commission of the natural sciences of the
academy. Upona report of this commission, accompanied by accurate esti-
mates of costs, his Majesty granted out of his private purse 4,000 florins for
the construction of the apparatus. I but follow the dictates of my heart, and

* These aspirators are now replaced by two small pumps, which act both by suction and
pressure.

PERSPIRATION AND RESPIRATION. 200

what would be the sense of duty of all who deem the physiology of assimila-
tion important, when, on this occasion of making to the academy my first
report of the apparatus now completed and tested, 1 express my most profound
emotions of gratitude to his Majesty King Max II, of Bavaria, as the generous
protector and intelligent promoter of the sciences.

The whole apparatus was put up during the last winter. Since May I have
occupied myself with testing it in every respect, and can now declare it com-
plete and entirely satisfactory for the purposes proposed, which may be said
also of all the methods of investigation employed in using it. ‘hat upon
which the whole finally turned was the proof that the amounts of carbonie acid
developed in the saloon of the apparatus could really be found again and de-
termined with the requisite exactness, a test which in all previous respiratory
apparatus has been wanting. After I had by various experiments ascertained
all the influences which the apparatus and the methods exert upon the exact-
ness of the results, I selected some stearine candles of good quality and deter-
mined their amount of carbonic acid by elementary analysis. They yielded
on the average, after three concurring experiments, ( Verbrennungen,) tor
which the material had always been taken from a different candle, to 100 parts
by weight, 291 parts by weight of carbonic acid, so that to one grain of stea-
rine may be computed 1,484 cubic centimetres of carbonic acid, the weight of a
litre of carbonic acid at 0° C. and 760 millimetres quicksilver pressure being
reckoned at 1.987 grammes. If the suction-pumps of the apparatus and the
aspirators for the analysis of the air were in operation at the same time, a
weighed candle in the saloon was lighted from without and before the close
of the experiment again extinguished from without and afterwards weighed,
the carbonic acid formed by the burning of the candle must be partly in the
air which has passed through the large gas-meter and partly in that which
remains behind in the saloon. The amount of carbonic acid in the air which
goes through the gas-meter is ascertained, as already mentioned, by passing
through lime-water as long as the air flows and is measured, a constantly equal
portion (say, 100 cubic centimetres per minute) drawn without interruption
from the current which passes from the saloon to the gas-meter. The amount
_ of carbonic acid which remains behind in the air of the saloon is determined
in this manner: after a proper mixing of air-strata in the saloon by means of
a fan put in motion from without, two or more flasks of six to eight litres,
filled by the pump at the conductor leading off from the saloon, are tested with
lime-water and an estimate made founded upon the known cubic measure of
the saloon. Not until after these flasks are filled should the saloon be entered
to take out and weigh the candle. As, however, the air which has passed
through the gas-meter and that which has remained behind in the saloon con-
tains not only the carbonic acid which arose from the burning of the candle in
the saloon, but also that part which the air already contained when it entered
the saloon from without, the amount of carbonic acid contained in the entering
air must be deducted. This may be known from repeating the experiment by
which the air flowing in is drawn off and examined in exactly the same man-
ner and as nearly as possible the same quantity as that passing out. Only the
difference, therefore, of the carbonic acid within and without is reckoned, and
it is precisely this which makes the determinations exact, since all the constant
errors of the system are thereby eliminated. ,

It is obvious that all measured quantities of air must be reduced, as regards
tension of vapor, temperature and air-pressure, to the usual standard.

I do not venture to ask the attention of the reader to all the necessary de-
tails of the apparatus or of an experiment. I must reserve these and their
justification to a more extended discussion in the papers of the technical com-
mission, and take the liberty here only briefly to state, in addition, the results
of three quantitative experiments.

238 PERSPIRATION AND RESPIRATION.

Pp

During am experiment which lasted 184 minutes, 25.210 grs. of a stearine
candle were consumed, which must generate 36.921 litres of carbonic acid.
During the time of the experiment 4.9722 litres of air passed through the gas-
meter. As the difference of the carbonic acid of this air and that entering the
apparatus from without, there results, in place of the above amount, 31.623 litres
of carbonic acid. There were still 5.922 litres of carbonic acid remaining in
the saloon, and hence there was found 0.6 litre, or 13 per cent., as surplus.

II.

The experiment lasted 215 minutes; 33.776 grs. of stearine candle were con-
sumed, which, represent 49.510 litres of carbonic acid. 58.554 litres again
passed through the gasmeter, together with 41.690 litres of carbonic acid.
8.019 litres of carbonic acid remained still in the saloon. There were, therefore,
found 0.19 litre of carbonic acid, or about 0.4 per cent. too much.

III.

The experiment lasted 188 minutes; 27.513 grs. of stearine candle were con-
sumed, representing 40.298 litres of carbonic acid. 50.680 litres of air passed
through the gas-meter, together with 33.347 litres of carbonic acid ; in the saloon
remained still 7.828 litres of carbonic acid. ‘There were found, therefore, 0.277
litre, or 0.6 per cent. too much.

It will be perceived that the result of the experiments agrees very nearly
with the theory ; better, indeed, than could have been expected in view of the
large dimensions of the apparatus and the great rarefaction of the carbonic acid.
The accuracy is at least fully sufficient for the purpose proposed; and by other
experiments I have been convinced that the determination of the carbonic
acid remaining in the saloon is the main source of the slight uncertainty which
still occurs, as this cannot be drawn off with the desirable exactness. If the
carbonic acid remaining in the saloon amounts to more than one-fifth of the
quantity which is contained in the current which had passed through the gas-
meter, the uncertainty becomes very perceptible, and may amount in case‘of
one-third and over to even seven or eight per cent. As proof of this I adduce
still two other trials affected with this error.

(a.) The experiment lasted 157 minutes; 21.485 grammes of stearine candle
were consumed, answering to 31.465 litres of carbonic acid. 42.862 litres of air
passed through the gas-meter, together with 21.56 litres of carbonic acid. In
the saloon remained still 7.57 litres of carbonic acid, or 52 per cent. too much.

(b.) The experiment lasted 108 minutes; 16.129 grs. of stearine candle were
consumed, representing 23.621 litres of carbonic acid. 29.626 litres of air
passed through the gas-meter, together with 15.02 litres of carbonic acid. In
the saloon remained still 6.73 litres of carbonic acid. There was found, there-
fore, 8 per cent. too little.

Supported by these and still other experiments, I can with safety assume
that, in an experiment of such duration, more than four-fifths of the carbonic
acid developed passes over into the current between the saloon and the gas-
meter; no greater uncertainty than one or at most two per cent. is to be feared.
As in experiments with men and animals the time may be extended to 12 and 24
hours, the hope of attaining a still greater accuracy is not unfounded. I should
have been pleased to extend a test experiment with candles to 24 hours; the aspira-
tors for the examination of the air, however, which are now at my disposal, per-
form their functions only five hours without interruption, A remedy will-be
found for the defect within a short time in a small pump apparatus, which, in
connexion with the large suction pumps in the engine-house, will constantly

PERSPIRATION AND RESPIRATION. 239

furnish a uniform portion of the air inside and outside of the apparatus for ex-
amination, so long as the air current is in motion—that is, so long, in general, as
an experiment continues.*

In closing I take the liberty to call attention specially to the fact that the
respiratory and perspiratory apparatus in the Physiological Institute here is the
first in which a result is possible under normal conditions; persons can live in
it just as in a well-aired room, in which they can freely move, labor, eat and
sleep, as they had been accustomed to do. By a movable window at the door of
the saloon, food and other things can be taken in and out, without the fear of
disturbing the experiment, with just as little concern as in a room, supposing
the chimney-draught in order, one opens the door to stir the fire or remove the
ashes without the escape of smoke.

The person outside of the saloon, conducting the experiment, does not in the
least disturb the result by his respiration, &c., for the amount of carbonic acid
of the air entering the saloon is constantly controlled by one of the two exam-
ining apparatus, and can therefore be drawn off. I have never hesitated to
smoke cigars during the progress of a test experiment, or to receive visitors
who also smoked, knowing that the changes of the air outside of the saloon
are to be ascertained precisely in the same way and with the same exactness
as those in the saloon. As only the difference is calculated, it is all the same
whether this is more or less, provided it can be determined with certainty.

In the test experiment with candles I have hitherto employed a change of
air of somewhat more than eleven English cubic feet (about 314 litres) per
minute. In an hour, therefore, there entered into the saloon, which contains
somewhat more than 12,000 litres, much more than its own capacity of fresh air.
By increasing the force of the suction-pumps which are worked by the engine,
the air-change can be quadrupled without thereby producing the slightest sensi-
ble draught in the saloon, except in the immediate vicinity (four to six inches) of
the openings in the saloon door. Opposite to these openings the transverse sec-
tion of the saloon is so considerable, that the rapidity of the movement of the
air must become imperceptible in the saloon itself, even if it is felt immediately
at the narrow openings. Under the greatest force of the suction-pumps, which
answers to a ventilation of 3,000 English cubic feet an hour, a candle still burns
perfectly undisturbed in the middle of the saloon.

That the rapidity of the entrance of the air at the saloon door is greater than
that of its diffusion—in other words, that there is no loss of carbonic acid to
be feared from the diffusion—is established simply by noticing whether the
pungent smelling smoke generated and observed in the saloon is observable at
the cracks on the outside. After this experiment had been repeatedly made
with negative results, one might have been @ priori, satisfied that no carbonic
acid developed in the saloon can be lost, which fact is also perfectly established
by the quantitative determinations. I am convinced that with this apparatus
all questions of animal and vegetable physiology, so far as they relate to an in-
erease or diminution of carbonic acid and water in the air, can be solved with
exactness and under perfectly natural conditions.t

Nore BY THE TRANSLATOR.—Professor Pettenkofer handed me the above report, at my
request, when I once visited him during an experiment in the Physiological Institute, and
be then made in pencil-mark the several short notes which are given in connexion with the
translation. A. TB

* The test experiments with candles have since been extended to twelve hours, and have
given an entirely accurate result. As already stated, the pump apparatus connected with
the propelling machinery provides, at present, for the examination of the two portions of air,
( Luftproben.)

tThese anticipations have all been entirely realized, since November, 1860, by experi-
ments, as well upon men as upon animals,

THE SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JULY 18, 1869.

BY DR. J, LAMONT.

Translated from “‘ Fortschritte der Physik,” xvi, pp. 569-6002, by Professor J. 8S. Hubbard,
United States Navy.

A—LIST OF PREPARATORY MEMOIRS.

(1.) Secchi.—Sulla eclisse solare del 18 luglio 1860, discorso lette alla Ponti-
ficia Accademia Tiberina, con note. Rome, 1860, printed from Giornale Arcadico
CLXIV.

(2.) Lamont.—Jahresbericht der Miinchner Sternwarte fiir 1858.

(3.) Lamont.—Letter to Professor Airy. Monthly Notices, xx, 93.

(4.) Hind—Nautical Almanac. Circular, No. 5.

(5.) Airy.—On the observation of the solar eclipse, July 18, 1860. Monthly
Notices, xx, 181.

(6.) American Nautical Almanac.—Yotal eclipse of July 17,1860. Specially

rinted.
: (7.) Madler—tL’ eclipse solaire du 18 Juillet, 1860. Observations of Imperial
University Observatory, Dorpat. xv, Part I, App., p. 1.

(8.) Faye.—Sur l’eclipse solaire du 18 Juillet, 1860. Gomptes Rendus xlviii.

(9.) Aguilar—Sobre el eclipse total de sol que tendra lugar el 18 de Julio
de 1860. Annuaire of Royal Observatory of Madrid, 1860, p. 152.

(10.) Carrington—An eye-piece for the solar eclipse. Monthly Notices,
2: elo

(11.) A. Thomson.—On the importance of making observations of thermal
radiation during the coming eclipse of the sun. Monthly Notices, xx, 317.

(12.) K. von Littrow—Audeutungen iiber astronomische Beobachtungen bei
totalen Sonnenfinsternissen. Wien. Ber., xxxix, 625.

(13.) Bache, A. D., and Gilliss—Proposed expeditions to Cape Chudleigh
and Steilacoom to observe the total eclipse of July 18, 1860. Monthly No-
tices, xx, 318.

(14.) D’ Abbadie.—Letter relating to the observation of the solar eclipse, July
18, 1860. Monthly Notices, xx, 189.

(15.) Rico y Sinobas.—Selection of stations in Spain. Monthly Notices,
xx, 102; Comptes Rendus, 1, 33.

(16.) Wolfers.—Die totale Sonnenfinsterniss am 18 Juli,1860. Astr. Nachr.,
xlvili, 33.

(17.) E. Edlund.—Ueber die Polarisation des Lichtes der Corona bei totalen
Sonnenfinsternissen. Astr. Nachr., lii, 305.

(18.) Hetis—Die Sonnenfinsterniss vom 18 Juli, 1860. Heis, W.S., 1860,
No. 26.

(19.) C. Haase—Die Sonnenfinsterniss. Popular bes-hricben, nebst erlau-
ternden Angaben fiir die totalen Finsterniss am 18 Juli, 1860. Hannover.

(20.) A. M. Nell—Die totale Sonnentinsterniss am 18 Juli, 1860. Mainz.

(21.) Hirsch —V orausberechnung der totalen Sonnenfinsterniss vom 18 Juli,
1860. Vienna, 1855.

(22.) Von Feilitzsch —Ueber physikalische Ersch-inungen bei totalen Son-
nenfinsternissen. Peters’ Zeitschrift fiir populare Mittheilungen, i, ii.

ee a

THE SOLAR ECLIPSE. 241

« B—OBSERVATIONS AND THEIR RESULTS.

(23.) Le Verrier and L. Foucault—Kclipse du 18 Juillet, 1860. Rapport
4 son Exe. le ministre de l’instruction publique. Cosmos, xvii, 145-150, 173-
183, 201-209; Inst., 1860, pp. 225, 226, 263, 264, 271,272; Heis, W.S., 1860,
pp- 253, 254, 260, 261, 267-269, 277-280, 286, 287, 289-298,'310-312; Ci-
mento, xii, 32-32; Bulletin de l’Obs. de Paris, 4-7 Sept. 1860.

(24.) Chacornac—Description des objets lumineux en dehors du disque solaire
pendant l’eclipse totale du 18 Juillet, 1860. Bull. de l’Obs. de Paris, 4-8,
Sept., 1860.

(25.) Burat—Observation de l’eclipse totale du soleil du 18 Juillet, 1860.
Bulletin de ’Qbs. de Paris, 26-27 Sept., 1860.

(26.) G. D. Weyer—Ueber die totale Sonnenfinsterniss vom 18 Juli, 1860.
Kiel, 1860, pp. 1-28.

27. Sidler—Die totale Sonnenfinsterniss am 18 Juli, 1860. Communica-
tions of Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Bern, 1860, pp. 146-152.

28.) Mannheim.—F ranges mobiles incolores observées pendant l’eclipse du
soleil du 18 Juillet, 1860. Annales de chimie, (3,) 1x, 207-210; Heis, W. S.,
1861, pp. 87, 88.

(29.) Faye—Sur les franges d’interférence qui se sont montrées en Algérie
durant l’eclipse solaire du 18 Juillet, 1860. Comptes Rendus, li, 999-1002;
Cosmos, xvii, 758-761; Institut, 1861, pp. 5, 6.

30.) Bremiker —Bericht iiber die Beobachtung der Sonnenfinsterniss vom
18 Juli, 1860. Berliner Monatsbericht, 1860, pp. 693-708; Heis, W. 8., 1861,
pp. 139-142.

(31.) Bruhns.—Observations de l’eclipse solaire 4 Moncayo. Cosmos, xvii,
230, 231; Heis, W.S., 1861, pp. 159, 160, 163-165 ; Bulletin de l’Obs. de Paris,
Aug. 20-21, 1860; Astr. Nachr., liv, 305.

(32.) Klinkerfues—Ueber die Beobachtungen der Sonnenfinsterniss vom 18
Juli, 1860,in Spanien. Gitting Nachr., 1860, pp.342-344; Astr. Nachr., liv, 263.

(33.) Mddler—Ueber die totale Sonnenfinsterniss vom 18 Juli, 1860, beo-
bachtet zu Vittoria. Tagebl.d. Naturf. in Kénigsberg, 1860, pp. 44-45 ; Zeits-
chrift fur Naturwissenschaft; xvi, 466, 467.

(34.) Mddler—Ueber totale Sonnenfinsterniss mit besonderer Berticksich-
tigung der Finsterniss vom 18 Juli, 1860. Jena, 1861.

(35.) Von Parpart—Beobachtung der partiellen Sonnenfinsterniss zu Storlus.
Astr. Nachr., lini, 331.

(36.) Beobachtung der partiellen Sonnenfinsterniss au der kais. kgl. Marine-

Sternwarte in Triest. Astr. Nachr., lili, 339.
© (37.) Dembowski.—Beobachtung der partiellen Sonnenfinsterniss zu Mailand.
Astr. Nachr., lili, 343.

(38.) Res/huber—Beobachtung der partiellen Sonnenfinsterniss zu Krems-
munster.

(39.) Schmidt.—Beobachtung der partiellen Sonnenfinsternissin Athen. Astr.
Nachr., liv, i.

(40.) Gadlle-—Beobachtung der particllen Sonnenfinsterniss in Breslau. Astr.
Nachr., liv, ii. is

(41.) Goldschmidt.—Observations de l’eclipse de soleil du 18 Juillet, (Vit-
toria.) Comptes,Rendus, li, 265-268; Institut, 1860, pp. 265, 266; Heis, W.
S., 1860, p. 319, 320, 523-325.

(42.) Goldschmidt.—Die totale Sonnenfinsterniss vom 18 Juli, 1860, beo-
bachtet zu Vittoria. Astr. Nachr., lvi, 305.

(43.) Bianchi.—Note sur l’eclipse totale de soleil observée & Vittoria le 18
Juillet, 1860. Comptes Rendus, li, 223.

(44.) Von Feilitzsch.—Indication des faits observées 4 Castellon dela Plana,
royaume de Valence, Espagne. Comptes Rendus, li, 229-232; Institut, 1860,
pp: 277, 278; Cosmos, xvii, 229, 230.

16 8

949 THE SOLAR ECLIPSE. |

~_

45.) Von Feilitzsch —Beobachtung der totalen Sonnenfinsterniss vom 18
Juli, 1860, in Castellon de la Plana. Astr. Nachr., liv, 81.

(46.) J. N. Legrand.—Sur Veclipse totale du 18 Juillet, 1860. (Castellon
de la: Plana.) Comptes Rendus, li, 268, 269.

(47.) Plantamour—Observation de Veclipse totale de soleil du 18 Juillet, &
Castellon de la Piana. Archiv d. se. phys., (2,) viii, 311-322; Institut, 1860,
pp. 315-318.

(48.) Plantamour —Kclipse solaire du 18 Juillet, 1860. Comptes Rendus,
li, 608-613.

(49.) Atry.—Account of observation of the total solar eclipse of 1860, July
18, made at Herefia. Monthly Notices, xxi, i; Arch. d. Phys., (2,) xi, 311-315.

50.) Faye—Sur l’eclipse totale du 18 Juillet dernier et sur les observations
de Mr. Plantamour. Comptes Rendus, 1, 378-386; Cosmos, xvii, 326-329 ;
Heis, W. S., 1860, pp. 336-338; Zeitschrift fir Naturw., xvi, 468-471; also a
note, GC. R., li, 708, 709.

(51.) Brazmowski.—Observation de ieclipse totale de soleil du 18 Juillet,
1860, & Brivieseca, Espagne. Comptes Rendus, li, 195-197.

(52.) Brazmowski.—Causes des rayons courbes de la couronne des eclipses
solaires. Cosmos, xvii, 748, 749.

(53.) Liais—Sur la polarisation de la couronne des eclipses. Pointillé du
soleil observé au zenith. Comptes Rendus, li, 766-769.

(54.) Lespiault—Observations faites & Briviesca (Vieille Castille) sur
Veclipse total de soleil du 18 Juillet, 1860. Comptes Rendus, li, 220-223. In-
stitut, 1560, p. 259.

(55.) Petit—Observations de V’eclipse du 1S Juillet faites a Briviesea.
Comptes Rendus, li, 389-394; Cosmos, xvii, 152,153; Institut, 1860, pp. 318, 31°,

(56.) Petit—Beobachtung der totalen Sonnenfinsterniss am 18 Juli, 1860.
Astr. Nachr., liv, 75.

(57.) D’ Abbadie—Kclipse totale du 18 Juillet, 1860. Remarques de M1.
Faye. Comptes Rendus, li, 703-709; Institut, 1860, pp. 380-382; Cosmos,
xvii, 583-585, 589-592; Astr. Nachr., liv, 277.

(58.) Airy.—On a result deduced by Mr. d’Abbadie from observations of the
total eclipse of July 18, 1860. Monthly Notices, xxii, 3-5.

(59.) Farnam, Maxwell, Lyte, and Micheliac—Observation de Veclipse de
soleil a l’hotellerie sur le versant du sud du pic du Midi, Pyrenees. Comptes
Rendus, li, 181, 182; Institut, 1860, pp. 389-399.

(60.) A. Seccht.—Observations faites pendant l’eclipse totale du 18 Juillet,
1860, au sommet du Mont St. Michel au Desierto de las Palmas en Hspagna.
Comptes Rendus, li; 152-162, 276-279, 386-388, 749-751; Institut, 1860, pp.
250, 251, 259, 260, 282-283; Cosmos, xvii, 151, 152, 242-329, 468-470; Heis,
W.5., 1860, pp. 263, 264, 265, 366-368, 382-384; Astr. Nachr., liv, 35, 263.

(61.) A. Seccht.—Relazione delle osservazionifatte in Spagna durante l’ecclisse
totale del 18 Luglio, 1860, (Estratto.) Roma, 1860; printed from Cimento, xii,
147-180. \

(62.) A. Seccht—Aggiunta alla relazione delle osservazioni fatte in Spagna.
Roma, 1860.

(63.) A. Aguilar—Observation faite au Desierto de las Palmas de l’eclipse
de soleil du 18 Juillet, 1860. Cosmos, xvii, 329, 330; Heis, W.S., 1861, pp. 5-7,
9-12, 17-18; Astr. Nachr. liv, 17.

(64.) A. Aguilar—Communicacion del director del observatorio de Madrid
al Comisario Regio del mismo, participandola los principales resultados obtenidos~
en la observacion del eclipse de sol del 18 de Julio, en el Desierto de las Palmas.

(65.) A. Aguilar—tKclipse de sol del 18 de Julio, de 1860. Annuaire d.
Observ. R. de Madrid, 1860, p. 171-257.

(66.) Don Franc. de Paula Marquez —Memoria sobre el eclipse de sol de 18
de Julio, de 1860. Publicada de orden Superior. Madrid, 1861.

THE SOLAR ECLIPSE. 243.

(67.) E. Gautier —Observation de l’eclipse totale de soleil de 18 Juillet,
1860, 4 Tarazona, (Aragon,) Arch. d. Se. Phys., (2,) ix, 236-247.

(68.) A. Laussedat—Observation de l’eclipse du 18 Juillet, & Batna. Algérie.
Comptes Rendus, li, 270, 27f, 441-445; Institut, 1860, pp. 278, 322-324;
Cosmos, xvii, 361, 362. ;

(69.) Faye—Remarques sur ’hypothese de atmosphere de la lune & Vocea-
sion de la lecture precedente. Comptes Rendus, li, 445-448; Cosmos, xvii,
362, 363; Institut, 1860, pp. 307-311.

(70.) Mahmoud Bey.—Rapport ison Altesse le viceroy d’ Egypte sur l’eclipse
totale du 18 Juillet, observé 4 Dongolah. Comptes Rendus, li, 680-684; Heis,
W.S., 1860, 412, 413; Cosmos, xvii, 569-571; Institut, 1860, p. 374.

(71.) Faye—Rapport surl’observation de l’eclipse du 18 Juillet, faite en
Nubie par Mahmoud Bey. Comptes Rendus, liti, 133-139.

(72.) Alexander.—On the results of the astronomical expedition to Labrador to
view theeclipse. Report of American Association. Edinburgh J., (2,) xii, 295, 296.

(73.) Gilliss—An account of the total eclipse of the sun, July 18, 1860, as
observed near Steilacoom, Washington Territory.

(74.) C. M. Goulier—Eclipse de soleil du 18 Juillet, 1860. Note accom-
pagnant l’envoi de trois images photographiques faites 4 Metz par le capitaine
de génie Lamey. Comptes Rendus, li, 148.

(75.) Vernier, (fils.)—Observatiom® de temperature faites 4 Belfort durant
l’eclipse, images photographiques de l’astre eclipsé. Comptes Rendus, li, 148, 149.

(76.) W. dela Rue—The recent solar eclipse as seen in Spain. I lustrated
London News, August 25, 1860; Atheneum, August 25, 1860; Heis, W. 5.,
1860; pp. 325-328, 329; Presse Scientifique, 1861, (3,) pp. 257-261.

'(77.) Lamont.—Sur les protuberances rouges observées pendant l’eclipse de
soleil du 18 Juillet, 1860. Bulletin de Bruxelles, (2,) x, 426-429; (Classe de
Sciences, 1860, pp. 541-544.)

78.) Lamont.—Die Sonnenfinsterniss vom 18 Juli, betreffend. Heis, W.S.,
1860, pp. 308-310.

(79.) C. von Wallenberg.—Kinige Mittheilungen tiber die totale Sonnenfins-
terniss am 18 Juli, 1860, beobachtet zu Valencia. Astr. Nachr., liv, 65.

(80.) Haase —Beobachtung der totalen Sonnenfinsterniss vom 18 Juli, 1860,
zu Valencia. Astr. Nachr., liv, 337.

(81.) Adolph.—Beobachtung der partiellen Sonnenfinsterniss vom 18 Juli,
1860, zu Gottingen. Astr. Nachr., lv, 91.

82.) J. Spiller—Photographie observations of the solar eclipse, July 18,
1860. Phil. Mag., (4,) xx, 19-194.

(83.) E. Quetelet, H. Hooreman.—Note sur Veclipse de soleil du 18 Juillet,
1860, observée a l’observatoire royal de Bruxelles. Bulletin de Bruxelles, (2,)
x, 181-184, (Classe de Sciences, 1860, pp. 339-342 ;) Astr. Nachr., liv, 1.

(84.) A. Quetelet—Eclipse partielle de soleil observée & Kensington le 18
Juillet, 1860. Bulletin de Bruxelles, (2,) x, 185, 186, (Classe de Sciences,
1860, pp. 343, 344; Institut, 1860, pp. 326-328.

(85.) W. S. Jacob—Notes on the total eclipse of the sun of July 18, 1860,
observed in Spain. Edinburgh Journal, (2,) xiii, 1-6.

(86.) W. Ferrell—Narrative of the American expedition to N. W. British
America, to observe the total solar eclipse of July 18, 1860. Silliman’s Journal,
(2,) xxxi, 139-142; Heis, W.5S., 1861, pp. 36-39, 45-48, 51, 52.

(87.) Zantesdeschi—Sur les phénoménes qui ont accompagné I’eclipse de
soleil du 18 Juillet, 1860. Comptes Rendus, liii, 194, 195.

- (88.) Airy.—Results of observations of the solar eclipse of July 18, 1860,
made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Monthly Notices, xxi, 155-157,

(89.) Cantzler—Die Sonnenfinsterniss am 18 Juli, 1860, beobachtet zu
Greifswalde. Heis, W.S., 1860, pp. 284, 285, 289, 290, 298, 317, 318, 329, 330
338, 339.

244 THE SOLAR ECLIPSE.
.(90.) Accounts of the solar eclipse, July 18, 1860, as observed in England,
at Greenwich Hospital, by Mr. Riddle; at Greenwich, by Rev. G. Fisher; at
Maresfield, by Captain Noble; at Uckfield, by Mr. Leeson Prince; at High-
bury, by Mr. T. W. Bure; at Haddenham, by Rev. W. R. Dawes. Monthly
Notices, xxi, 16-27. ;

91.) Correspondenznachrichten die Sonnenfinsterniss vom 18 Juli, 1860,
betreffend. Heis, W.S., 1860, pp. 252, 253, 261, 262, 276, 277, 322-333, 389.

(92.) G. Schweizer —Ueber dic in der Niihe der Sonnenriinder beobachteten
Flecken vor und nach der totalen Sonnenfinsterniss des 18 Juli, 1860. Bulletin
de Moscon, 1860, (2,) pp. 238-267.

(93.) Meteorologische Beobachtungen wihrend der Sonnenfinsterniss vom 18
Juli, 1860, zu Bordeaux. Heis, W.5., 1860, p..262.

(94.) Krecke-—TYemperatur der Luft wiihrend der Sonnenfinsterniss am 18
Juli, 1860, zu Utrecht. Heis, W.5., 1860, pp. 343, 344.

(95.) Baudrimont, Raulin, Houel, Royer et Micé.—Kclipse solaire du 18
Juillet, 1860; observations de physique et de meteorologié faites a Bordeaux.
Comptes Rendus, li, 145-147; Cosmos, xvii, 153, 154.

(96.) L. Palmieri.—Osservazioni meteorologiche emagnetiche durante ]’eclisse
ultima. Cimento, xii, 145-147.

(97.) E. Desains.—Observations thermometriques instituées pendant l’eclipse
de soleil du 18 Juillet, 1860. Cosmos, x@ii, 118, 119.

(98.). Lorey.—Sonnenfinsterniss am 18 Juli, 1860, beobachtet auf dem Pauls-
thurme, in Frankfurt am Main. Jahresbericht der Frankfurt Verein, 1859-’60,
». O35.

__ (99.) Lindhagen—Jagttagelser Sfver solf6rmérkelsen den 18 Juli, i Spanien.
Ofvers. af Férhandl, 1860, pp. 383-404.

(100.) A. Moller—Beriittelse om en med auslag af almiinne medel féretragen
resa firatti det une af Spanien, observera den totale solférmérkelsen af den 18
Juli, 1860. Ofvers. af Forhandl, 1860, pp. 405-414.

(101.) A. Méller—Beobachtung der totalen Sonnenfinsterniss”am 18 Juli,
1860, in Lund. Astr. Nachr., liv, 96.

(102.) Bruhns.—Beobachtung der totalen Sonnenfinsterniss vom 18 Juli,
1860, in 'Varazona, in Spanien. Leipz. Ber., 1860, pp. 214-232; Archiv des
Sciences Phys., (2,) xiii, 246-249; Zeitschrift fiir Naturw. xviii, 37-38.

(103.) O. Strure—Bericht tiber die Beobachtung der totalen Sonnenfinster-
niss vom 6, (18,) Juli, 1860, zu Pobes. Bulletin der St. Petersb., i, 385-396.

(104.) Sabler—Beobachtung der partiellen Sonnenfinsterniss vom 18 Juli,
1860, in Wilma. Astr. Nachr., liv, 21. ‘

(105.) Von Littrow—Beobachtung der partiellen Sonnenfinsterniss vom 18
Juli, 1860, in Wien. Astr. Nachr., liv, 135.

(106.) Th. Thiele—Solformirkelsen den 18 Juli, 1860, observeret i Vitoria. °
Nordisk. Univers., Tidskrift, 6 Aarg.. 11 Heft, 1860.

(107.) D’ Arrest—Beretning over Jagttagelsen af der totale Solformérkelse
der indtraf i Spanien den 18 Juli, 1860, (preliminary notice.) Overs. over
Forhandl, 1860, 195, 196.

(108.) Bulard.—Kclipse total de soleil du 18 Juillet, 1860, observée 4 Lam-
bessa, (province de Constantine.) Comptes Rendus, liii, 509-512.

(109.) Zantesdeschi—tIntorno ai fenomeni osservati in Italia nel eclisse di sole,
18 Luglio, 1860. Cherbourg, 1861.

(110.) #. Kayser —Beobachtung der Sonnenfinsterniss am 18 Juli, 1860, in
Danzig. Astr. Nachr., liv, 225, 226.

(111.) Legnazzi—Osservazioni del principio e della fine del l’eclisse del 18
Lneiie: 1860, fatte all. I. R. Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova. Astr. Nachr.,
iv, 263. :

‘ vera Maury —Kclipse of the sun, July, 1860, Washington. Astr. Nachr.,
¥, ii, 42:

l THE SOLAR ECLIPSE. 245

(113.) -Wolf—Beobachtung der partiellen Sonnenfinsterniss zu Zurich. Astr.
Nachr , lv, 337, 338.

In the great number of essays and notices contained in the above catalogues,
space would not allow us to consider each one separately, even independently
of the many repetitions which must thereby arise. I will, therefore, give a gen-
eral account ot the phenomena of the solar eclipse of the 18th of July, 1860,
and therein, in order to simplify the citations as much as possible, will always
adjoin, in parentheses, the catalogue number of the memoir to which reference
is made in the statements.

The writings designated above refer both to stations where the sun appeared
purtially eclipsed, and also to those which lay within the zone of total eclipse.
With reference to the first class, it will be sufficient merely to enumerate the
names of the stations. ‘l‘hey are as follows: Athens, (39;) Belfort, (76;) Bor-
deaux, (93, 95;) Breslau, (40;) Brussels, (83;) Dantzice, (110;) Frankfort-on-
the-Main, (98;) Géttingen, (81;) Greenwich, (90;) Greifswalde, (89;) Had-
denham, (90;) Highbury, (90;) Kensington, (84;) Kiel, (26;) Kremsmiinster,
(38 ;) Lund, (101;) Milan, (37;) Marestield, (96;) Metz, (74;) Naples, (96 ;)
Padua, (111;) Pic du Midi, Pyrenees, (59;) Rome, (61;) Storlus, (35;) ‘T'rieste,
(36;) Uckfield, (90;) Utrecht, (94;) Vienna, (105;) Washington, (112;) Wilna,
(104;) Woolwich, (82;) Ziirich, (113.)

The observations made within the zone of totality are the only ones which
are of especial interest; and in this respect there is in the above collection an
important deficiency, since the observations recorded by the English astrono-
mers in northern Spain have only been published as yet to a very limited
extent and very incompletely.

The zone of total eclipse began in North America, traversed Spain from north
to south, passed over thence to Algiers, and ended in the interior of Africa.
In North America, the government of the United States sent two expeditions—
the one, under the direction of Mr. Alexander, to the coast of Labrador; the
other, in charge of Mr. Gilliss, to Steilacoom, Washington ‘Territory; but ob-
servations could be made only at the latter point.

The best opportunity for observations was furnished in Spain, and thither,
accordingly, most of the astronomers betook themselves.

Notwithstanding that from the first, by a circular sent from the directory of
the observatory at Madrid to all European astronomers, and published in the
Astronomische Nachrichten, lii, 253-256, as well as in the Monthly Notices,
xx, 184-187, the endeavor was made to distribute the stations uniformly over
the whole zone of total eclipse, this was but very imperfectly accomplished,
and, instead of an equable distribution, there resulted a collection into three
groups, namely:

Northern group, with Vittoria as the central point—This group consisted of
Messrs. Airy, O. Struve, W. de la Rue, Winnecke, Madler, Prazmowski, Mél-
ler, d’Arrest, Weyer, Fearnley, Lindeléf, Lindhagen, Petit, d’Abbadie, Les-
piault, Goldschmidt, Thiele, Burat.

Middie group; central point, Tarazona.—This includes Messrs. Le Verrier,
Villarceau, Chacornac, Foucault, Ismail Effendi, Bruhns, Gautier, Novella.

Southern group ; central point, Castellon de la Plana.—To this group belong
Messrs. Secchi, Aguilar, Plantamour, Riimker, B. von Feilitzsch, Bremiker,
Marquez, Carlini, Donati, Haase, Von Wallenberg, Ribeiro de Sousa Pinto,
Ant. de Souza, J. C. de Brito Capello, Klinkerfues, Lamont.

The French government sent to Algiers, under Mr. Laussedat, a commission
consisting ef officers and professors of the Polytechnie School, who stationed
themselves in Batua; and the Viceroy of Egypt sent the astronomer of Cairo,
Mahmoud Bey, with a numerous retinue, to Dongolah, on the. Nile, (19° 12’ 41”
north latitude.)

246 THE SOLAR ECLIPSE.

Let us first contemplate the progress of the phenomenon in general. A very
important circumstance was noticed everywhere, viz., that when (observing with
the glass sereen) the sun seemed to’ have completely disappeared, and the sereen
was then quickly removed, a bright solar crescent was still visible, disappearing
some twenty or thirty seconds later. ‘This is the same phenomenon which Mr.
Airy first saw in 1842, at the Saperga near Turin, and described by saying that
he had observed the sun vanish ¢wice behind the moon. In the present case,
some observers state that they saw a second solar crescent; others only remark
that, after removing the screen, there was a dazzling brilliancy which compelled
them to withdraw the eye from the eye-piece. This circumstance is especially
important for the reason that it has influence upon the observed duration of
totality, since it is evident that this duration will come out longer or shorter,
according as the beginnmg and end of totality are observed with or without the
sereen; also, the intensity of shade of the screen will have its influence. The
greater part of the observers probably observed the beginning with and the end
without the screen. :

During the second vanishing of the sun, or even a few seconds earlier, nu-
merous intensely red rays issued from the moon’s limb, the smaller ones of which
soon disappeared, but the larger showed as protuberances after the eclipse was
completed. According to some observers the vanishing solar crescent trans-
formed itself into an intensely red border; while others saw, at the moment of
the sun’s vanishing, the whole moon surrounded by a small red border, either
of red pearls or flames, which seemed torua around it. It was noticed by every
one that « red border preceded the appearance of the sun on the west side.

The protuberances appeared upon the east, south, and north sides almost
simultaneously, but only towards the middle of the totality did they come out
upon the west, and gradually iereased in height, while the eastern ones con-
tinually diminished, and entirely disappeared. 'Their color was red, more or
less intense, and here and there orange. ‘The protuberances were better seen
with a light red glass screen than without any screen at all, and with such a
glass could be longer followed even after the totality, a circumstance of which
great advantage can be taken in future observations.

No ground was given for the assumption of a connexion of the protuberances
with the solar spots.

In the corona there were_to be distinguished the cnnermost small ring, the
outer broad ring, and the rays or halo.

Of the innermost smali ring the moon’s limb formed the interior limit, and a
sharp circular line concentric with the moon’s limb, and about two minutes
distant from it, the outer limit. The light was silver white, and of equal
intensity throughout, or perhaps a little fainter just at the moon’s limb.

The outer ring diminished in intensity as the distance from the moon's limb
increased, and an exterior jimit could not be assigned to it.

The rays reached a distance of more than a diameter of the moon, and were
partly straight, partly curved.

The corona was seen for several minutes before and after the totality.

Phenomena exactly corresponding to the fringes and pearls described by
Baily were not recognized.

The darkness during totality was, in America, equal to that of night. In
Spain and Algiers there remained a twilight sufficient to enable the observer,
without a lantern, to recognize the seconds of the chronometer, and to read
coarse print. ‘The planets and stars of the first magnitude in the vicinity of
the sun were easily perceived. As regards the planet of Lescarbault, its non-
appearance contributed to confirm the opinion which the great number of
astronomers had already formed relative to if.

The dark spots or fringes which were first seen, in 1842, to pass over on the
floor or on white walls immediately betore the totality attracted the attention of

THE SOLAR ECLIPSE. 247

many observers in Spain and Algiers, who were occupied with the general

South progress of the phenomenon ; and it ap-

ha peared that they begin about a minute be-
fore the vanishing of the sun, and move on
parallel with the solar crescent, 7. e., parallel
with the tangent of the point of the moon’s
limb, where the sun vanishes.

A collation of the observations decides
at once one of the most important points
of dispute, inasmuch as it comes out de-
cidedly that everywhere the principal pro-
tuberances appeared at the same points of
the moon’s limb.

The most conspicuous protuberances are
designated in the adjoining figure. The
first, which appeared immediately after the

North.

sun vanished, was a, whose angle of position (taken in some cases only from
drawings) is thus given:

an

155° Bruhns, (Tarazona.) 155° W. de la Rue, (Rivabellosa.)
154 Secchi, (Desierto. ) 154 Winnecke, (Pobes.)

155 Aguilar, (Desierto.) 144 Novella, (Tarazona.)

145 Plantamour, (Castellon.) 156 d’Abbadie, (Briviesca.)

160 Lamont, (Castellon.) 148 Thiele, ( Vitoria.)

140 Von Feilitsch, (Castellon.) 155 Goldschmidt, ( Vitoria.)

The long mountain ridge 6 is also to be perceived in all the drawings. The
gles of position are, however, less accurate on account of its extent.
The protuberance ¢ is especially deserving of notice, because it appeared

separated from the moon’s limb. Its position was:

55° Airy. 45° Plantamour.
60 Bruhns. 25 Novella.
59 Secchi. 57 W. dela Rue.

63-78 Winnecke.
58 Goldschmidt.

The protuberance d appeared under the position-angle :

59 Aguilar.

28° Aguilar. 35° Bruhns.
at ae
16 Struve. 30 Lamont.

36 Winnecke. 25 Goldschmidt.
| 22 Airy.

The protuberance e was noticed by only a few observers, and seems after-

wards to have formed part of an extended mountain ridge. ‘The position was
given as follows:

328° Novella. 330° Aguilar.
320 Struve. 340 Bruhns.

| 3850 Goldschmidt.
The protuberance f was, at some places, observed as standing by itself; at

others it formed only a part of a long mountain ridge. The position-angle was:

260° Bruhns. f | 265° W. de la Rue.
277 Secchi. 260-263 d’Abbadie.
270 Plantamour. 265 Aguilar.

270 Lamont.
The position of protuberance g was given as follows;
255° Thiele. I. 235° Aguilar.

948 THE SOLAR ECLIPSE.

It is impossible to establish a complete accordance between the observations
of the different astronomers, both because no observer has noted all the pro-
tuberances, and also because, in estimating or graphically representing the
position-angles, the accidental errors may come out quite large, as is already
evident from the examples cited. ‘To this may yet be added that on the west
side of the moon, at the middle of totality, only simgle protuberances appeared ;
while later, on this side, they extended to long mountain ridges, so as to pre-
sent a different aspect every moment, rendering an identical reference impos-
sible.

The attempts made in Desierto de las Palmas and Rivabellosa to photograph
the phenomena of the eclipse led to the satisfactory result that not only some
success is to be obtained, (which, indeed, could scarcely be doubted after the
attempts made in Kénigsberg in 1851,) but also that the phenomena are much
more correctly and completely recorded than by direct observation. The posi-
tion-angles of the protuberances obtained by photographing (very uncertainly,
indeed, on account of the smallness and want of precision in the images) were
given by Mr. Aguilar as follows:

Desierto de las Palmas. | Rivabellosa.
Pee rOtberanee-a. .o.coces os aCe hes ols ae see See aoe 282
en U0! < es Oat cara sites Cole ORS cI clint eo etelaiere 57 Oe
See eae 2... 4 Gis we oh Pelee k es cee 159 154
MEME CLC teres ccc ie crocs Crake Oiele ane yelnte Sepa e Cones 194 197
Fa 2 fo oi 8 cic ola mpc SD eR eee ica ee cle oe 231 23
eo 00-4 n= 2 1 yal epi re A 8 Ny we! Bie 260 265
0 Cee b) SOAR B AR anh Sega as aaa 4 276 278
Gite HAOe acs Coie cle oa Cit TEN eal alate Brae 340 346

The fourth protuberance was observed by Mr. Secchi (pos. 195°) and Mr.
Aguilar, (pos. 193°;) the fifth by Mr. Secchi, (pos. 231°.)* Also, the long
mountain ridge 6 occurs in the photographs. Moreover, the photographs show
a considerable number of protuberances not included in the preceding list, and
among these even very prominent ones, of which no trace was to be perceived
by direct observation. 'Vhe explanation of this fact presents many difficulties,
since. if we say that the light of those protuberances may act chemically with-
out affecting the retina of the eye, we must not forget that in practice hitherto
no example of this sort has yet been exhibited.

The fact that the photographs obtained in Metz by Mr. Goulier, (74,) and
sent to the Paris Academy, show a sort of corona close to the solar crescent,
which could not be seen by direct observation, appears to be attributable to
accidental causes, and certainly should not be considered analogous to the
above-mentioned phenomenon.

If we would consider more particularly the questions to be brought to test
by the solar eclipse of the 18th of July, 1860, we find in the first rank those
relating to the nature of the protuberances. The manifold investigations to
which the earlier eclipses gave rise were so far from bringing a definite opinion
with general acceptance that, even now, those who explained the protuberances
as phenomena of interference or inflexionj and those who considered them as
solar clouds, were about equally divided. In the above-mentioned preparatory
memoirs both hypotheses are defended ; and, in fact, Messrs. Airy (5) and Von

*Sivgularly, both these protuberances are wanting in the drawing made by Mr. Aguilar
after the direct observation.

THE SOLAR ECLIPSE. 249

Littrow (12) have pronounced very decidedly in favor of solar clouds, and Mr.
Von Feilitzsch (22) for phenomena of interference. The detailed theoretical
references given by the latter deserve very special attention, and include all
the optical phenomena of total eclipses—the corona, the rays in the corona,
and the protuberances. For producing the latter there are assumed at the
moon’s limb isolated conical elevations of about 500 feet altitude azid base,
which are yet so small that they could not be seen with telescopes magnifying
300 times; and it is also shown that the same theoretical development explains
the origin of an zso/ated protuberance. if we assume at the moon’s limb a very
high isolated mountain summit. With regard to the hypothesis advanced by
myself, (2,) that the colors of the protuberances are produced by inflexion of
light at the moon’s limb, but their form by small masses of vapor floating in
our atmosphere, this has been set aside by the circumstance mentioned above,
that the same protuberances were seen at different places. Nevertheless, I
cannot yet entirely give up the opinion that the vapors of an atmosphere—that
is, the condensations caused by reduction of temperature next to the inmost
shadow—do exercise a very considerable influence upon the phenomena of total
eclipses, and especially upon the forms of the protuberances.

If we examine how the opinions relative to these questions stand now after
the observations of the total.solar eclipse of 1860, we find the vote comes out
nearly as follows:

In favor of solar clouds, more or less decidedly, are—Messrs. Airy, Le
Verrier, Secchi, Aguilar, Struve, Madler, Gautier, Bremiker, Gilliss, Winnccke,
Petit, Prazmowski, Lespiault.

In favor of interference phenomena are—Messrs. Plantamour, d’Abbadie,
Marquez, Legrand, Faye, Lamont.

A preponderating number have, therefore, declared themselves in favor of
the first opinion. Hereby we must not omit to consider that every one who
desires to combine different observations of a solar eclipse into a single result >
is compelled, at the same time, to enterpret critically and to supply deficiencies.
In the shortness of time and the incompleteness of the apparatus no observer
can completely and accurately take in the whole phenomenon, and therefore
an interpretation and completion seems necessary and justified. But thereby
the deciding ground becomes so far doubtful, that probably the greater part of
the non-participating astronomers will consider the case as not yet ripe for
decision.

The criteria according to which we must decide are very simple. Sup-
posing that the moon moves over the sun exactly from west to east, then the
protuberances, whether solar clouds or caused by interference, will first appear
in the east, and gradually diminish in size, will come out later in the west and
increase in size; while upon the north and south the magnitude must remain
unvaried. If the protuberances are solar clouds, there are yet to be added the
special conditions :

1. That the diminution of altitude in the east and the increase in the west
must exactly correspond to the relative motion of the moon.

2. That the protuberances must remain unchanged in form and color.

3. That with the northern and southern protuberances there must be changes
of the angles of position corresponding with the relative motion of the moon.

Applying these propositions to the several protuberances mentioned above,
it appears that with d the altitude should have remained unchanged; but the

osition-angle should in each minute have diminished about 1.°9. That,
a ana the protuberance ¢ should have diminished by 14”, and a by 23!’
in each minute, and the protuberance g should have increased 24”, f 26’, and
e 20” in the same time. ,
Direct measures, with reference to the given criterions, were made by Messrs.

Airy (88) and d’Abbadie, (57,) and the former found for the position-angles

250 ' THE SOLAR ECLIPSE. :

of d and c in equal intervals of time the following values, which, however,
represent neither an increasing nor a diminishing series, namely :

d c
25° 50! 55° 50!
20 20 56 20

(‘T'wo observations lost.)
20 20 56 20
23 20 53 20

while the latter measured three altitudes of the protuberance a, of which the
first is doubtful, and, as Airy has circumstantially shown, (58,) if the correction
required by the observer himself be adopted, would be against the hypothesis
of solar clouds; but if the correction be not adopted, would be am favor of that
hypothesis. By indirect methods, comparing with the position of the solar
crescent, Bruhns (31) (102) obtained two position-angles of the protuberance d,
which he was able to follow from 2 minutes before until 8 minutes after the
total eclipse, and found that in an interval of 13.7 minutes the angle of position
had diminished 26.°3, an argument of weight in favor of the assumption of
solar clouds. On the other hand, Von Feilitzsch (44) (45) determined by
measurement the diminution of the protuberance a in one minute to be 45”,
and Plantamour (47) found it more than 30’, while it should have amounted
to only 23”. The latter pointed out also that the floating cloud ¢ vanished
before it could be reached by the advancing moon’s limb; and entirely similar
results, pronouncing decidedly against the assumption of solar clouds, were
obtained by Mr. 'Thiele, (106,) who compared the altitudes of the protu-
berances measured at definite instants with the times of their disappearance,
and thence computed the diminution of altitude.

Besides these measurements, there are in the material before us no other
numbers which could lead to a decision. ‘The progress of the eclipse, however,
produced in many observers, among them Messrs. Plantamour, (47,) d’ Arrest,
(107,) Legrand, (46,) Goldschmidt, (41,) (42,) &c., the definite impression
that the changes of altitude did not proceed with uniform velocity, and my
own perceptions agree with this. On the other hand, Mr. Secchi (60) (61)
brings up the circumstance that the colors of the protuberances were very dif-
ferent from the interference colors exhibited in optical experiments.

Since the central shadow passed over the whole distance from the northern
to the southern coast of Spain in ten minutes, the protuberances considered as
solar clouds should have appeared at all the stations the same in form and
colors. Now, upon comparing together the drawings and descriptions of the
different observers, it will be always possible, by interpreting and completing
deficiencies with considerable freedom, to produce a similarity; but without
such interpretation and completing, there is certainly to be found no’ satisfac-
tory agreement at all.

Definite resting points might be gained by comparing the forms which the
same observer saw at different moments during the totality; and yet, in this
respect, we find contradictory testimony, for, while Bremiker (30) could per-
ceive no changes, Messrs. Plantamour, (47,) Von Feilitzsch, (45,) Bruhns, (31,)
and Goldschmidt, (41,) (42,) did observe changes of form and color in sey-
eral protuberances. I noticed the same thing, with all certainty, in the pro-
tuberance a.

With regard to the corona, and the rays therein contained, the observers ap- .
pear generally to have attained to the conviction that they do not belong to the
sun, but are occasioned by interference at the moon’s limb, and partly also by
the vapors in our atmosphere.

The question whether the same rays were seen at the different stations cannot
be decided with definiteness, for, while in the drawings at Pobes and Tarazona

'

THE SOLAR ECLIPSE.’ 251

a great resemblance can be perceived, the other representations differ so widely
from each other that doubts must arise respecting the identity of the objects.

I now pass to the special contents of the individual memoirs, but limit myself
to mentioning that which is worthy of especial notice, or is strikingly discrepant.

The most comprehensive and important among the above-mentioned memoirs
is that of Mr. Aguilar, (65,) in which we find, not only a review of all the con-
clusions arrived at by Spanish observers, but also a collection of many results
from foreign observers. After a historical introduction we find the limits of
totality determined from the data given by professors, officers, and engineers,
who, partly voluntarily and partly commissioned by their governments, had
stationed themselves at corresponding points. {t results therefrom that the zone
of totality agreed in diameter with the prediction, but, in position, must be car-
ried somewhat N.NE. of the predicted place. Next follows an investigation
of the duration of totality, which was everywhere found to be shorter than pre-
dicted. In fact, the correction amounted to—

15” in Vitoria. 17’ in Moneayo.
16 in Briviescea. 16 in Castellon.
16 in Herramelluri. 15 in Desierto.
16 in Burgos. 12 in Campvey.

That the computed duration should require a correction, while the computed
breadth required none, is a contradiction, which Mr. Aguilar explains by the
remark that the correction corresponding to the above numbers would amount
to only 600 meters, and we can only decide about so small a quantity when a
complete collection of the observed data is before us.

if it should finally appear that there was a diminution of the breadth of zone
corresponding to the diminution of duration of totality, then Mr. Aguilar thinks
it probable that, in accordance with the idea of Faye, (69,) to be exhibited be-
low, we must assume a lunar atmosphere. That the phenomenon may be as-
cribed to an entirely different cause has been already indicated above.

Further on Mr. Aguilar mentions the different views relative to the corona,
such as the questions whether it is single or double; whether it extends out fur-
ther at the sun's equator than at the poles; whether its light is polarized or
not. In respect to the latter question the observations of Messrs. Secchi,
Barreda, Rodriguez, and, above all, of Mr. Prazmowski, have decided that it is
to be answered affirmatively, assuming thereby that the polarizing reflection
takes place in the atmosphere of the sun, and not at the moon’s limb, or in the
atmosphere of the earth.

The question of the protuberances is treated most at length. Mr. Aguilar
brings up the facts noted by the Spanish observers at Bilbao, Vitoria, Tudela,
Logrono, Casarejos, Lortora, and Ibiza, which he considers accordant with the
idea of solar clouds, then expresses his doubts relative to the observations of
Gijon and Oviedo, which do not harmonize therewith, and states, in special de-
tail, the things noticed by himself and some foreign astronomers. In this con-
nexion steel-engraved copies of four photograms, obtained at Desierto de las
Palmas by Mr. Monserrat, by help of an apparatus belonging to Mr. Secchi, are
added by way of elucidation.

Finally, the last chapters relate to the intensity of the solar light, the effect
upon plants, meteorological determinations, and effect upon animals. An ap-
pendix gives a summary view of all the stations and observers ou the line of
totality from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean.

The memoir of Mr. Marquez (66) is very thorough, and cf greatinterest. It
contains, first, the principal moments of eclipse, the description of its progress,
the position and magnitude of the protuberances, represented by a sketch* drawn

*Tassume that No. 7, in the drawing of Mr. Marquez, is identical with a; Nos. 1, 2, 3,
with the mountain chain ); No. 8 with d; No. 9 withc; and No. 1] with f. Over the pro-
tuberance a Mr. Marquez noticed two isolated points.

7

252 i ‘THE SOLAR ECLIPSE.

by eye, and differing considerably from the data of other observers, after which
follow very complete meteorologic, magnetic, and photometric observations. It
is worthy of notice that an inner ring was not seen in the corona; on the other
hand the whole circumference of the moon appeared surrounded by a red bor-
der. It is stated, moreover, that the protuberance f was seen proceeding out
from the moon’s limb before the solar crescent; and, finally, we must also
mention the noted peculiarity that immediately before the vanishing and after
the re-appearing of the sun, black, mountain-like elevations of the moon’s limb
(somewhat similar to the phenomenon described by Baily) projected themselves
upon the various solar crescent. ‘The greater part of the memoir is taken up
with the collation of previously observed phenomena of total eclipses, and the
criticism of the theories formed for their explanation, wherein the author ex-
presses, as the final result, his very decided opinion that we can only assume
inflexion, or interference of light, at the moon’s limb.

The first memoir of Mr. Airy (49) is to be considered as only a preliminary
account, as all the observations made by those who participated in the British
expedition are to be collected together in a large volume and published at the
expense of the British government. In the second memoir (88) the corrections
of the solar tables of Le Verrier, and lunar tables of Hansen, are deduced from
the observations made during the eclipse with the great equatorial of the Green-
wich Observatory, and the results are as follows :

Correction.
Dif. AR =€ —AR © = —I/1
Diff. Decl. € — Decl. © = —4. 0
Sun’s diameter = +0. 13
Moon’s diameter == —2, 4

The memoir of Mr. Bremiker (30) contains, in addition to tné determination
of time and the principal instants of eclipse, also the positien-angles of the pro-
tuberances, and some data respecting their form. He did not observe any
changes of form, and, according to the whole course of the phenomenon, he ex-
plains the protuberances as solar clouds. It is worthy of notice that the floating
cloud ¢ was not perceived either by him or myself, (the distance between us
was only a few steps,) while Mr. Plantamour, whose station was some hundred
feet further west, saw it distinctly. We meet a similar paradox also at Desierto
de la Palmas (65) and Oropesa, (66.) Mr. Bremiker appends to his memoir a
brief investigation respecting the brilliancy of Venus, which, at the time of to-
tality, he estimated to have one and one-half time the brightness of Jupiter, while,
according to Lambert’s formula, it should have given much less light. He
shows that the observation may be satisfied by assuming that the atmosphere
of Venus also reflects light, so that the formula of brillianey must consist of two
terms, whose coefficients he determines.

Mr. Plantamour (47) brings up, in his brief but very precisely written exhi-
bition of the course of the eclipse, various facts which contradict the assumption
of solar clouds, and gives three drawings, representing the beginning, middle,
and end of totality, in which are found the protuberances a, 6, c, 7, and a moun-
tain-cha‘n which covers the whole distance between e and ft

In the second paper (48) he endeavors to defend his drawings, and the state-
ment that the protuberance e vanished without coming into contact with the
moon’s limb, against the objections of Mr. Secchi, (62 )

Mr. Gautier, (67,) without having perceived anything peculiar or different
from other observers, pronounces with great decidedness against the hypothesis
advocated by Mr. Plantamour, and appears to assume that the sun is surroynded
by a cohering red cloud-stratum with steep elevations and depressions. In the
drawings given by him we notice the protuberances a, b,c, e, f, and a long
mountain-chain between e and f.

THE SOLAR ECLIPSE. 253

Mr. Goulier (74) brings out in a short notice the circumstance that, in the
photographs obtained by Mr. Lamey in Metz,.the solar crescent appears sur-
rounded on all sides by a bright light, of which the direct observations have
shown no trace.

The results of Mr. Chacornac, (24,) as well as the apparatus used by him, are
materially different from the rest. The telescope employed, made by Foucault,
had a silvered mirror of 0.4 metre (15 Paris inches) [aperture,| and was mounted
equatorially. The investigation related exclusively to the protuberance d, whose
position he gives as 50° (30°?) eastward from the north point. While other
observers compared the protuberance to mountain-tops, mountain-chains, or to
clouds, Mr. Chacornac declares this comparison wholly inaccurate, and finds in
the appearance great similarity to numerous gas-flames, or, better yet, to
a burning pile of straw, or of loose combustible material, on which a current of
air is acting in such a manner as to bend the many flames into different diree-
tions. The protuberance consisted of two separate parts: a larger part, where
it seemed as though the burning had just commenced; and a smaller, where
apparently the fire had already penetrated through the material, and the burning
was quietly going on. From the circumstance that some parts appeared very
distinct, while others seemed to be in a manner wrapped in cloud, we shouid
infer, says Mr. Chacornac, that some were nearer, and others at a greater dis-
tance, an idea which Mr. Secchi has also brought forward. Although Mr.
Chacornac directed his especial attention to only one point, he neveriheless
swept repeatedly with his telescope over the whole circumference of the moon,
and so had opportunity to convince himself that all the protuberances presented
a similar aspect. It is known that Mr. Arago considered the luminous envelope
of the sun as burning gas, and Mr. Chacornac seems to have had this idea in

his mind while describing the protuberances.

_ The different memoirs of Mr. Secehi (60) (61) (62) are of especial interest,
partly on aécount of the observations which he himself made, and partly by
reason of the connexion into which he has brought his own observations with
those of others. He considers the protuberances as portions of the luminous
"envelope of clouds by which the sun is surrounded, and holds accordingly that
the solar atmosphere is less extended in the polar regions than toward the
equator, and that also the agitation of the atmosphere is less at the poles. His
remark (not fully carried out in all respects) that the photographs obtained by
himself and Mr. de la Rue are identical is especially noteworthy, as also his
explanation of the circumstance that protuberances appear in the photographs
which could not be perceived by direct observation with the telescope. The
changes of solar heat during the progress of the eclipse were determined by
Mr. Secchi by means of a thermo-multiplier of Melloni; also magnetic and me-
teorologic observations were noted down.

Mr. Prazmowski (51) gave himself to the problem of investigating the polar-
ization of the corona and of the protuberances, for which purpose he had
constructed two different instruments. The first, consisting of a telescope mag-
nifying 22 times, with a quartz plate in the focus, and a Nicol’s prism between
the first and second eye-lens, showed a strong polarization of the light of the
corona in which the polarizing plane was perpendicular to the moon’s limb—a
result which entirely agrees with previous determinations, and with the above-
mentioned observation of Mr. Seechi. The second instrument, a telescope of
the same kind as the preceding, but with double the power, had a scale of quartz
between the first and second lenses, and before the eye-piece a double-refracting
prism, with a small refracting angle, so that the two images of a protuberance
appeared near together, (the distance was only 14 minute,) while the two images
of the corona projected themselves upon each other, and formed a white ground.
In this way it became)possible to decide the hitherto unsettled question respect-
ing the polarization of the protuberances by ascertaining that their light is not

~

254 THE SOLAR ECLIPSE.

olavized. “Is it allowable,” asks now Mr. Prazmowski, “to conclude from
this that the protuberances are solar clouds which consist, not of gaseous, but of
vapory or fixed particles ?” )

Among the facts noted by Mr. Lespiault (54) we may point out this, that rays

belonging to the corona proceeded out from very many points of the moon’s
limb, but irregularly in direction and distribution, and some were also curved
near the outer limit of thé corona. The irregularity showed itself very man-
ifestly at about 233° from the north point, where the rays seemed to cross in
all directions. 'The largest ray in the corona was from 80° to 110° distant from
the north point. He measured the altitudes and bases of three of the protuber-
ances, a, (2) e, (2) d, but without giving the time.

The communicaticn of Mr. Bianchi (43) respecting the identity of the protu-
berances of 1842 and 1860 would be of greater weight if more particular refer-
ences were added. -This important defect, and then the objections that must
arise in consequence of the different relative position of sun and moon, and the
circumstance that Mr. Bianchi does not seem to have occupied himself specially
in astronomical works, gives but little hope that his propositions would be
established. The approximate agreement which we perceive in the drawings
of different eclipses relative to the position of single protuberances loses much
in weight when we consider the great number of the protuberances.

Mr. Faye (50) did not observe the eclipse himself, but only collected observa-
tions and compared them with earlier statements, and has endeavored to show, in
opposition to the opinion of his colleague, Mr. Le Verrier, (23,) that the hypoth-
esis of solar clouds is untenable, partly by reason of the differenee of form -
seen at different localities, partly by reason of the rapid changes of form and
color which are manifested during the totality, and partly on account of the
impossibility of referring the phenomena of different eclipses back to a common
fundamental point. Thus we have observed white protuberances, rose-colored
protuberances, intense red protuberances, red and orange protuberances, peach-
red protuberances, violet protuberances, black protuberances, white protuber- :
ances, with black edges, without any reason having been assigned for these
colors, and the transition from one to another. My. Faye then speaks of the
phenomena of the corona and the halo of rays connected with it, which, according
to his remarks, cannot be considered as belonging to the sun; and, furthermore,
he. does not acknowledge as correct the conclusions drawn from the polarization ~
phenomena.

Mr. Petit, (55,) (56,) who made numerous measurements of the heights of the
protuberances, (not given, however, in his memoir,) considers the hypothesis of
solar clouds as completely established by the whole series of recent observations,
and remarks, at the same time, that not the least ground is given for the assump-
tion of identity of the protuberances of 1842 and 1860. In the corona, which
he saw 12™ before and 2™ 46° after the totality, he distinguishes three concentri¢,
rings—an innermost brilliant ring of 7’ 30" breadth; a second ring, 9’ 30” in
breadth; and an outer ring, 28’ broad, consisting of less regular light. Barometer
and thermometer observations are also added.

The expedition sent to Algeria, under direction of Mr. Laussedat, (68,) con-
structed a temporary place of observation before the gate of Lambersa, and
obtained, during the eclipse, various results which were transmitted to the Paris
Academy at the same time with the very general report lying before us. ‘The
results communicated called up an academic discussion, in which Mr. Faye (69)
remarked, that since, according to Hansen’s statement, there is an atmosphere
on the side of the moon opposite to the earth, and,-according to Herschel, the
temperature of the moon’s surface in consequence of the long-continued sunshine
reaches at least to the boiling point of water, the lunar atmosphere at the time
of new moon must, by reason of the expansion, spread out, and become visible
at the sides of the moon. He shows how in this way many phenomena of the

THE SOLAR ECLIPSE. 255

total eclipse of 1860, namely, the shortening of duration of totality, the visibility
of the moon’s limb before and after totality, &c., may be explained.

Mr. d’Abbadie (57) observed position-angles and altitudes of the protuber-
ances @ and e, and, in fact, the latter was observed before the appearance of the
sun with the position-angle of 260°, and after the appearance of the sun, as a
new protuberance, with the angle of 263°. The conclusions to which his ob-
servations lead have been already mentioned above. His polarization observa-
tions agree, indeed, with those of Mr. Prazmowski, but cannot be considered as
decisive.

The account of Mr. Gilliss (73) is very remarkable, and we can only wish
that the things noted could have been exhibited in more detail and explained
by drawings. The station was'in a prairie (Muck Prairie) near Steilacoom, in ‘
a bleak and little cultivated part of Washington Territory, and the dampness
was so great that the object-glass of the telescope required to be wiped off from
time to time, as a deposition was constantly forming. If we assume that in the
photographed drawings, accompanying the memoir, north and south only are
inverted, and not east and west, so that south is above, north below, west on the
right, and east on the left, then Mr. Gilliss observed protuberance g with the
position-angle of 255° to 258°, and this came out first, and with striking bright-
ness as a cloud-pyramid of 2’ base and 1’ altitude. As the moon advanced the
base increased, while the altitude remained the same; notwithstanding, the ap-
pearance made an impression upon Mr. Gilliss as though the protuberance came.
gradually more into view behind the advancing moon. A smaller protuberance
(doubtless f) appeared simultaneously under the angle of'268° to 273°, and
towards the end of totality the protuberance 4 (?) was also perceived. ‘These
are the only objects which Mr. Gilliss speczal/y mentions. He remarks, how-
ever, that the number of the protuberances was considerable, and that they
commenced to appear about 30* after the beginning of totality, after a small
white line had been seen immediately around the moon’s limb, and outside of
this line a crown of red points or pearls which seemed to run around the moon.
But the most striking thing in the appearance were rainbow-like and rainbow-
colored small bands of equal radius with the moon, which, in great number,
following each other upon the dark lunar disk, moved inward toward the centre
from east and west. Mr. Gilliss leaves it undecided whether a real appearance
was seen here, or only an optical phenomenon arising from physiological causes,
yet he adds a short description by Mr, Goldsborough, at Steilacoom, from which
he thinks it may be concluded that the latter saw the same phenomenon. At
the beginning of the totality the moon showed itself spherical, as though seen in
a stereoscope.

Mr. Burat (25) designates the outer limit of the corona as elliptical in such a
way that the breadth at the solar equator was greater, and less at the poles.
Among the protuberances he noticed 4, ¢, d, e, but no accurate comparison can
be instituted, as he has not given the times.

Mahmoud Bey (70) observed the eclipse in Dongola, on the Nile, and saw at
first 6, but near the end of totality 7 protuberances, among which were 8,
(observed position-angle 109° to 121°,) f, (observed angle 278°,) and c, which
last appeared as consisting of two isolated clouds.

In the memoir of Mr. Midler (34) it is especially worth while to notice the
indication of a circumstance, not previously brought into consideration, by which
a decisive confirmation or contradiction of the optical hypothesis is rendered
possible. For since, under the conditions which obtain in solar eclipses, the
moon’s poles can have no libration, but the effect of libration at the east and
west limbs is included within quite narrow limits, therefore the same protuber-
ances must always appear at the poles in case they are caused by elevations at
the moon’s limb; and, as regards the east and west limb, there will be, at least
in the course of a long period of time, total eclipses with the same libration, when

256 THE SOLAR ECLIPSE.

also the same protuberances should then appear at the sides of the moon. From
the further proposition of Mr. Madler, to use the ten-year period of solar spots
in a similar manner, and compare the total eclipses which occur at equal phases
of this period in order to decide whether the solar spots have a connexion with
the protuberances, but little success may be anticipated generally. Very in-
structive lithographic plates are appended to the memoir, where we find all the
hitherto observed ‘protuberances represented. Mr. Midler himself, in Vitoria,
noted the protuberances a, 4, d, e, and two smaller prominences besides; the
observation of these, and comparison with the statements of other observers,
leads him to the conclusion that solar clouds, and not diffraction or inflexion, are
the cause of the phenomenon.

Mr. Thiele (106) gives a sketch of the protuberances, together with an esti-
mate of the altitudes and position-angles; whence we can deduce that he saw
the protuberance a, (pos. 148° ; initial altitude, 2’; vanished one minute forty-
six seconds after beginning of totality,) the mountain chain 4, (pos. 90° to 120°,)
the floating cloud c, (pos. 46°,) the protuberance d, (pos. 28°,) and the pro-
tuberance e, (pos. 345°.) From his own observations and those of others he
deduces the velocity with which the moon apparently advanced over the pro-
tuberances, and finds the numerical result two or three times as great as it
should have been upon the supposition that the protuberances belonged to the
sun.

Mr. Von Wallenberg (79) observed very near the limit of the zone of totality
in Valencia, and appears to have seen the protuberances f and g at the lower,
and then @ and @ at the eastern limb of the moon. He describes the rays of
the corona as uneven, and with cloud-like termination, and notes three in par-
ticular, one of which (slightly curved to the south) seemed to proceed from
between the two eastern protuberances, and the other two (hook-shaped, with
their concave sides towards each other) to proceed from the vicinity of the two
lower protuberances. It may also be added as worthy of remark, that, at be-
ginning of totality, the narrow solar crescent did not run together at the mid-
dle, but towards a small notch in the moon’s limb somewhat on one side from
the middle; and here a point of light remained behind, and vanished 15 seconds
after the crescent.

Mr. Goldschmidt (41) (42) observed the protuberances a, 6, ¢, d, (whose
position-angles were probably given not from his own observation, but from the
photographic determinations of Mr. Secchi,) and another protuberance at 195°,
and two small ones at 36° and 60°. From his circumstantial description we
perceive that before the vanishing of the sun he saw a gray-cloud stratum,
situated at the sun’s limb, just where the protuberance 6 appeared afterwards ;
that the protuberance e in the course of the totality changed considerably in
form and color, and that d remained visible yet 4 minutes 40 seconds after the
reappearance of the sun. He ascribes to the corona a yellow color; he com-
pares the protuberances, whose altitudes he gives about twice as great as other
observers, to glowing wood coals. He brings up as a thing especially noted
ae during the totality, “the dark moon had had an inner broad and defined

imb.”

Mr. W. de la Rue (76) describes, first, the preparations which he had made
for photographing, and then informs of the result, which consisted in obtaining
two photographs during the totality, and thirty-one during the rest of the
course of the eclipse. He, himself, observed the phenomenon with a telescope,
in whose focus was applied a glass with lines for helping to estimate magnitude
and position of protuberances; and he saw some minutes before totality, when
he had diminished the light by refleetion from a glass surface, the whole cir-
cumference of the moon and a bright protuberance eastward from the zenith.
Afterwards, immediately before the sun vanished, he could, without diminish-
ing the light, discern the floating cloud ¢, and a whole series of protuberances

‘ THE SOLAR ECLIPSE. Q57

further to the east. He adduces, as worthy of remark, that in the position-
angle 72° a large protuberance appeared in the photographing, of which he
had seen no trace in the direct obsérvation, although the region was com-
pletely swept over by him.

With. regard to my own observations, (77,) (78,) of which the results will
not be published until a later day, I remark, that I saw only the protuberances
a, b, d, and f, at the place of the floating cloud. I noticed rays belonging to
the corona which were not perpendicular to the moon’s limb, but were inclined
southward.

The description given by Mr. Mannheim (28) of the movable fringes forms
a part of the general report made by the commission sent to Algeria by the
Polytechnic School in Paris. We see therein that the fringes were rectilinear
and entirely colorless, and at first following each other at distances of one
decimeter, and afterwards at smaller distances and with greater rapidity. In
this connexion a quotation is introduced from the report of Arago upon the
solar eclipse of 1842, wherein the explanation is pronounced difficult and «*
uncertain.

Mr. Jacob (85) belonged to the British expedition which went to Spain
under the direction of Mr. Airy for the purpose of observing the eclipse, and
chose its station in the Pass of Pefiacenada, between Vitoria and Logrojfio.
From the preliminary notice which he communicates respecting the pro-
tuberances, we deduce that he saw the protuberance a, the mountain-chain 3,
the floating cloud c, and the protuberance e at precisely the same points of the
moon’s limb at which they appeared in southern Spain. With reference to
the protuberance e, it is remarked that it first appeared shortly before the end
of totality.

I believe that in the preceding pages I have brought into notice the most
important points from the extremely comprehensive material before us. If I
have not more closely considered various classes of observations relating to
special questions, such as magnetic, meteorologic, photometric observations, or
observations of colors and lines of the prismatic spectrum, the reason is, that
as yet no noteworthy results have been deduced from those observations, and

- partly, also, because the questions in view, as of the absence of an influence

_ of'the eclipse upon the barometer and the magnetic needle, might be considered

|
:

as decided by previous investigations.

In relation to the expeditions undertaken into Spain, I only add yet the
remark, that they experienced on the part of the inhabitants the most friendly
reception, and on the part of the authorities all possible support and furtherance
in carrying out their scientific labors; and all those who participated in the
expedition, without exception, have in the warmest terms expressed their
acknowledgments.

17 s

ECLIPSE OF THE SUN, APRIL 25, 1865.

Paris, June 23, 1865.

Sir: [have the honor to address to you the copy of a very interesting letter
which I have received from a distinguished savant, M. le Baron de Prados, of
Rio de Janeiro, on the total eclipse of the sun of the 25th of April last.

It appears to me important that this letter should be published, for we need
the preservation of accounts of all the principal eclipses in order to complete the
theory of the physical constitution of the sun. I request, therefore, that you
will cause it to be published, if possible, in some of the works issued by the
Smithsonian Institution.

Be pleased, sir, to accept the assurance of the respectful consideration of your
humble servant,

EMM. LIAIS,
Astronomer of the Observatory of Paris,
Mission Scientifique, 56 Rue de Belle-Chatte.

Professor HENRY,

Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

On the eclipse of the sun, April 25, 1865.

{Extract of a letter from M. le‘Baron de Prados to M. Liais, dated April 26.]

In pursuance of your indications I repaired to Rio de Janeiro some days be-
fore the opening of the Chambers,* that I might be able to observe the eclipse
of the 25th instant. Unfortunately, the sky remained overclouded up to the
time of the first contact. When the sun could be observed, the shadow of the
moon had already invaded its disk, so that the first contact was lost. The last
exterior contact, the only one which I could observe with any exactness, took
place, according to the observers who were present at the imperial opservatory,
myself being among them, at 114. 54m. 5s. Being at the great meridian re-
fractor, which had been removed in order to be directed upon the sun, I was ena-
bled to follow those physical details which there was an opportunity of observing.
The eclipse was not absolutely total at the observatory. A thread of light
which, at the height of the phenomenon, took the form of a chaplet, perhaps
prevented the observation of all the particulars of the corona. This last showed
itself, however, for some moments in all its splendor. The following are the
special cireumstances which I was able to remark during the short duration of
the phenomenon :

At the moment when the luminous thread assumed the chaplet form, the

*M. Baron de Prados is president of the Corps Legislatif of Brazil. He resides at Barba-
cena, where he has caused to be constructed at his own expense, and maintains, a large hos-
pital for the poor. He studied medicine at Paris when young, and conducts the above es-
iablishment himself. The Chambers opened eight days after the eclipse, which explains the
first phrases of the letter.

ECLIPSE OF THE SUN, APRIL 25, 1865, 259

_western border of the moon presented a magnificent ring of some seconds in
breadth and of a violet-blue color. Its regularity was perfect. It was rather a
luminous outburst of admirable effect. Nothing like it was manifested on the
side of the eastern border. The ring of the corona was, nevertheless, well
closed, and of a perfect pearl color, except on the eastern side, where the feeble
line of solar light gave it the ordinary tint of the atmosphere near the edge of the
sun. Five pencils of parallel rays of a perfect whiteness proceeded, almost per-
pendicularly, and without blending, from the edge of the ring of the corona.
None of these pencils seemed to me contiguous to the lunaredge. If we except
the violet-blue coruscation which showed itself on the western border of the moon
at the height of the eclipse, nothing was observed which resembled those flames
or protuberances which are almost constantly remarked in total eclipses, unless
we suppose to be such the same magnificent luminous ¢razt of violet blue of
which I have spoken.

Perhaps the short duration of theeclipse, and the illumination, however feeble,
of the eastern edge of the sun, prevented their being distinguished at our station.
We shall learn what will be said on this subject by the expeditions of St. Cath-
erina and Cabo-Frio.* Notwithstanding the instantaneousness of the phenome-
non, I endeavored to verify the existence of the polarization of the light of the
corona. For this purpose I availed myself of the polariscope with colored
bands of Savart, and that of M. Babinet. It was with the former instrument
that I best recognized the polarization. The bands were well colored on direct-
ing the instrument on the corona. The coloration was sufficiently sensible to
forbid my admitting the intervention of the atmospheric polarization, for it was
imperceptible when the instrument was directed on the lunar centre. It need
not be said that the atmosphere-was strongly polarized in all its regions, during
the continuance of the phenomenon, in the manner in which it ordinarily is.
One circumstance, manifested with much distinctness, was the visibility of the
border of the moon beyond the solar disk during even the first phase of the
eclipse. Arago, however, had remarked it in 1842, and you have also called
attention to it in your observation of 1858 with regard to photographic tests
by causing the solar image to fall upon unpolished glass. During the whole
eclipse I carefully explored in the photosphere the solar surface which showed
the greatest calm. By a singular defect the faculee were scarcely perceptible
in my instrument. Should the observations at St. Catherina and Cabo-Frio
verify the absence of protuberances, the opinion will receive strong confirma-
tion which supposes them to be formed by the ascending currents of solar
vapors, which then involve by their impulsion the clouded extraphotospheric
stratum, and whose violent elevation produces the protuberances. The photo-
sphere was tranquil, and only a luminous line of a violet-blue color, a regular
level stratum, presented itself to view. I sought with care for the existence of
moving shadows. Nothing, however, was verified, although a large number of
scholars of the Central school, who were then at the observatory, had their eyes
fixed on the white walls of the cupola, favorably disposed for observation. The
sky was so cloudy that we could perceive at our station only the planet Venus.
The inhabitants, however, of places more to the south are said to have dis-
cerned several stars of the first magnitude.t The leaden color tending to
violet predominated in the air and on the sea, which resembled molten lead.
Domestic animals manifested the usual phenomena, the fowls seeking their
roosts, while certain species of brutes seemed to manifest rather surprise than
fear. Of the horses.and mules in the streets of Rio de Janeiro, nothing re-

* Letters of a later date than that of Baron de Prados have informed us that these two ex-
peditions encountered such bad weather as to preclude observations.

t To the south of Rio de Janeiro the eclipse, according to other information, was abso-
lutely total.

260 ECLIPSE OF THE SUN, APRIL 25, 1865.

markable was noticed. The meteorological observations offered the same
anomalies which have been remarked in 1858 ; that is, the minimum of tempera-
ture did not correspond with the maximum of the eclipse. The temperature
began to ascend immediately after the commencement of the phenomenon, and
then sank until the latter was at its height, when it stopped at 24.3° centigrade.
Before the eclipse the same thermometer marked 24.7°. Thesame thing occurred
with the barometer, which commenced ascending at the beginning of the eclipse,
and did not decline till 9%. 4m., reaching its minimum at the point of greatest
obscuration. Having remarked nothing striking as to other meteorological phe-
nomena, I limit myself to these simple indications.

REPORT OF THE TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY

OF GENEVA, 1861.

BY REV. M. DUBY, PRESIDENT.

TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY C, A. ALEXANDER,

GENTLEMEN: It would afford me great satisfaction to be able to communi-
cate, in the rapid sketch which I am about to present of the proceedings of our
Society, some small portion of the pleasure which I have myself derived from
a review of them. In the full and accurate reports of our secretary, the instruc-
tive lecture and animated discussion have seemed again to pass before me, and
_ these I must now attempt to retrace, but, of course, without the hope of repro-
ducing that which formed so large a part of the charm of our meetings—the
uniform kindness which pervaded them, the unaffected urbanity with which
each, whatever might be the line of his own studies, lent an attentive interest
to the researches of his colleagues. The classification which I shall follow, in
giving an account of your proceedings since M. Pictet read to you the last an-
_ nual report, will be that adopted by him, as well as my other predecessors.

PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

You recall, doubtless, the interesting paper presented last year by M. Ritter,
on the figure of the earth. He has lately resumed this subject. In his second
memoir he has applied to the calculation of the dimensions and exact form of
the globe the analysis which he had previously developed, while availing him-
self of all the observations which furnish the actual elements of the .problem.
His calculations extend over eleven arcs, divided into sixty sections, and com-
prising seventy-five stations, with a total amplitude of eighty-six degrees, which
are not all contiguous. It results that the ideal metre, or the ten millionth
part of the quarter of the meridian, exceeds, by two hundred and twenty-eight
thousandths of a millimetre, or one hundred and one thousandths of a line, the
legal metre, or metre of the archives. he flattening of the earth is 53,, with
an uncertainty of 2.6 in the denominator. The equation of the meridian differs
unquestionably from that of the ellipsis, the meridian being swelled out towards
the forty-fifth degree by a stratum whose thickness is twenty-seven toises, with
a probable error, more or less, of twenty-four toises. This uncertainty pertains
chiefly to the latitude of three of the stations—Montjouy and Evaux, in the
French arc, and Kamiez, in the are of the cape.

To M. Ritter we also owe an account of the new experiments which the office

-of the ordonnance survey, charged with the geodesic operations of Great Bri-
tain, has caused to be made in Scotland, with a view to determining the density

262 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF

of the earth. M. Ritter informs us that the manner in vvhich these experiments
have been conducted, and the possibility that unknown and unconsidered sub-
stances may exist in the mountain, on the two sides of which the experiments
were made, do not authorize us to accord to the results obtained the same con-
fidence which should be inspired by experiments of the nature of those of
Cavendish. Again, the operations in England, conducted by the commission
for restoring the standard of measures of length, (the yard,) have found in M.
Ritter a reporter qualified to convey to his colleagues a clear idea of the diffi-
culties encountered, and of the scrupulous precautions taken to obtain a solu-
tion of the problem. .

The study of the periphery of our globe, and the phenomena it presents, have
been the subject of several communications. M. Chaix, in giving a summary
account of the voyage of McClintock to the polar regions, showed that the
boreal lands have in general a higher relief than was heretofore supposed. The
mean relief of the islands discovered since the voyages of Captain Koss reaches -
2,000 feet. Different indications lead to the belief in recent upheavals. To
the same colleague we are indebted for a sketch of a memoir by Colonel Gra-
ham, on the semi-diurnal tides of Lake Michigan, from which it results that the
high spring tide at the syzygies rises to 3.48 inches, and M. Graham thinks
would reach 4 inches, were all causes of disturbance removed.

Professor Wartmann and M. de Saussure on two occasions occupied the
attention of the Society with a work by M. Thomassé, on the hydrology of the
southern part of the United States. This latter savant, accepting the state-
ment of American engineers that the quantity of water conveyed by the Mis-
sissippi equals but the tenth part of the whole quantity which falls in the basin
of that river, contends that to explain this phenomenon it is necessary to sup-
pose a drainage by subterranean passages, and attributes to that cause the foun-
tains of fresh water observed in the sea at the mouth of the river. M. de Saus-
sure cannot admit that these fountains proceed from cavities or clefts in the
middle or superior portion of the river, which flows over the old sandstone,
quite unconnected with the recent formations of New Orleans. M. Chaix dis-
putes even the basis of M. Thomassc’s hypothesis. Not only is it very diffi-
cult accurately to gauge the river at different seasons, but we are by no means
in possession of the necessary elements for estimating, even approximately, the
quantity of water which falls in the basin of the Mississippi. M. Chaix reminds
us that M. Ellet gauged that river both below and above each of its great afilu-
ents, and that the result showed that the quantity of water conveyed, though
augmenting considerably at each point of confluence, regularly presented a sen-
sible diminution fifty leagues lower down. This diminution, according to the
engineer just mentioned, is easily accounted for when we observe that below
the Arkansas the right bank is low, swampy, and furrowed by bayous or arms
of the river.

The natural glaciers of our mountains have been the object of very particular
investigations by MM. Soret and 'Thury—by the former in reference to a glacier
above ‘hun, and by the latter in the case of the Pré de St. Livres, in the vau-
dese Jura, and in that of Vergy, in the Alps of Savoy. It was in winter that
M. Thury made the visits of which he gave us an account, and he draws from
his observations the conclusion that the time of the formation of the ice in these
cavities must have been the season of the year when both water and frost pre-
vail—that is to say, in autumn, and especially in spring.

Professor de la Rive presented to the Society copies of three Portuguese
maps of Africa, of an earlier date than 1558, which were sent to him by M.
Lavradio, for the purpose of showing that many geographical facts discovered
within late years were not unknown at the above epoch. M. Chaix, in effect,
called attention to the singular fact that these maps indicated a chain of lakes

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 263

and rivers in the interior of southern Africa. , This cireumstance, however, loses
its importance when we observe that, although referred to the same latitudes
with those discovered by Livingstone and Burton, the names borne by these
collections of water betray the error by which, while really belonging to equi-
noctial Africa, they have been transported too far to the south.

Before quitting our own planet to recall the communications relative to
astronomy, I should occupy a moment with an account of some researches re-
specting the atmosphere. ‘To Dr. Lombard we are indebted for a memoir treat-
ing of the influence of altitude on rain. M. Gasparin, it will be remembered,
claims to have established the law that the quantity of rain increases with the
height. M. Lombard has collected, as bearing on this point, numerous obser-
yations published in the United States, and, having compiled and compared
many tables, arrives at results which, whether as regards the valley of the
Mississippi or the whole country, entirely contradict the supposed law. M. de
_la Rive, reminding us of a theory formerly advanced by himself regarding the
formation of non-concentric hailstones, and ascribing it to the sudden congela-
tion of collections of globules of water suspended in the atmosphere and cooled
below zero, took occasion to announce to us that Professor Dufour, of Lau-
sanne, has recently, by very ingenious experiments, furnished additional proba-
bility to the theory, and shown the effect which violent concussion would have
in producing the phenomenon.

‘The principal discussions in regard to astronomy arose from the observa-
tions of the total eclipse of the sun, July 18, 1860, made by Professor Plan-
tamour, at Castellon de la Plana, in Spain, and by Colonel Gautier, near Tar-
razona, It was certainly a fortunate circumstance for the Society that two of
its own members were among the accomplished observers of these striking
phenomena, and the details furnished by our colleagues were received with
marked attention. As their memoirs have been published, I shall not here
attempt a detailed analysis; I shall only observe that the essential point on
which the discussions tarned was in relation to the red protuberances which,
immediately after the disappearance of the sun, showed themselves on the edge
of the obscure disk of the moon. Those observed by M. Gautier seem not to
have been identical with those which M. Plantamour has so well described.
The former particularly noticed one of these protuberances which, after having
made its appearance at the commencement of the eclipse under the form of a
small spot, continued to increase with a regular gradation and assumed the
form of a large triangle, a little to the right of the zenith. But the chief sub-
ject of variance between the two observers regards the cause of these protu-
berances. If both agree in extolling the splendor of the spectacle, it is held,
on the one hand, by M. Plantamour, to be a simple optical effect produced by
the interposition of the screen which changes the direction of the sun’s rays ;
while, on the other, M. Gautier thinks that the phenomenon is essentially solar.
It would occupy us too long to state the arguments by which our learned ob-
servers sustain the conclusions at which they arrived. I shall merely add, on
the authority of M. Gautier, that the author of the annual report of the Astro-
nomical Society of London seems to have adopted the opinion that the protu-
berances pertain to the sun.

M. Gautier has from time to time supplied us with information respecting
the researches of M. R. Wolff on the spots on the sun. These researches
confirm the existence of a period of about cleven years in the return of the
spots, but their size is modified in an interval of five or six of those periods.
The elder M. Wartmann stated, with regard to these spots, that when observed
directly through the telescope they seem black, but when the image is received
on a screen their appearance is red. He thinks that the phenomenon in the
former case is an effect of contrast with the light of the orb. M. de la Rive

’ a

264 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF

called the attention of the society to some new experiments by M. Kirchoff
relating to the influence exerted on the stripes in the spectrum of a flame by
the presence in that flame of certain metallic substances. From these experi-
ments highly interesting consequences regarding the nature of the solar
atmosphere are deduced by M. Kirchoff.

From M. Gautier we also received an account, first, of a memoir of M. Otto
Struve, jr., on the annual parallax of the stars, alpha of the lyre and 81 of
the swan. The result of the observations on this last star establish its com-
parative proximity to the earth, from which, nevertheless, it is separated by four-
teen millions of millions of leagues; second, of a memoir of M. Powel, of
Madras, on the double star eta of Cassiopea, the distance between the two
stars being 7”, and their orbit indicating a revolution of 181 years; third, of
the publication of tables of Venus, by M. Leverrier, the results of which indi-
cate that the value of the mass of the earth is to be slightly augmented;
fourth, of observations made in England and in Germany on a nebula which,
during the month of May, 1860, assumed for some days the appearance of a
brilliant star of the sixth or seventh magaitude.

M. Wartmann, sr., notified us of the discovery, between Mars and Jupiter,
of six new asteroids. On this occasion he combated the idea of M. Leverrier,
that these new planets might be recently formed from the cosmic matter dif-
fused through space. He also communicated a note on an aurora borealis ob-
served at Geneva Marcli 9, 1861, in which it is shown that the theories of the
aurora heretofore given leave unexplained the cause of the movement of oscil-
lation which is executed by describing suddenly and completely an azimuthal
are of several degrees in extent to the right and left of the magnetic meridian.
M. Wartmann invites the attention of theorists to this strange phenomenon,
which equally concerns both physics and meteorology.

The communications relating to electricity have been, as usual, quite nu-
merous. M. L. Soret presented on the 6th December an essay towards a
mechanical theory of electricity. After having recalled the fact that electric
phenomena, and especially the calorific and mechanical effects, seem to adapt
themselves fully to an hypothesis like that on which rests the mechanical
theory of heat, he infers that electric phenomena are to be regarded as melecu-
lar movements subject to the ordinary laws of mechanics; and he proceeds to
investigate the nature of those movements which he considers to be rotary.
The rotation may be executed in two directions, from left to right and from
right to left. From thence would flow that duality which characterizes elec-
iric phenomena, and conducting bodies would be those which allow the trans-
mission of the rotary movement of a molecule to neighboring molecules, while
that property would be absent in isolating bodies. On these principles M.
Soret explains the facts of both statie and dynamic electricity ; and he termi-
nated this first communication by showing that the phenomena of the propa-
gation of currents and extra-currents, of the closing and the rupture of a cir-
cuit, are easily explicable on the hypothesis thus presented. The chief objec-
tions to this theory arise from the impossibility of explaining thereby actions
at a distance, and the consideration that the movement of rotation of a mole-
cule cannot produce in the neighboring molecules a movement in the same di-
rection, but necessarily movement in a contrary direction.

M. de la Rive reminded us that in 1849 he proposed to explain the variations
of the magnetic needle by the existence at the surface of the earth of. electric
currents resulting from a rupture of equilibrium of the terrestrial and atmos-

pheric electricity. This theory was rejected by astronomers, who maintained
that the magnetic variations are too intimately connected with the position of
the sun not to depend on the direct action of the-mass of that body. Rccently,
however, a celebrated astronomer, Father Secchi, has anew had recourse to the

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 265

influence of atmospheric agents in order to explain to a great extent the varia-
tions of terrestrial magnetism. very rupture of meteorological equilibrium
producing a condensation of watery vapor would produce a rupture of elec-
trical equilibrium. This equilibrium cannot be re-established except by cur-
rents of the surface, currents which must act on the magnetic needle. Doubt-
less the mass of the sun exerts a direct action on terrestrial magnetism, but
M. de la Rive thinks that this action has been much exaggerated. It would
not surprise him if in the magnetometer theregwere eventually found an instru-
ment of meteorology at least as delicate as the barometer.

By the same colleague an account was given of the experiments relative to
electrical cables, which he had witnessed in England. It appears that the ill
success of the transatlantic cable is chiefly to be ascribed to the defective
setting of the soldering, and also to the circumstance that the cable was laid
in such a manner as was calculated to produce ruptures in the isolating en-
velope. Nor is the fact to be overlooked, which has been proved by direct
experiments, that pressure increases the conductibility of the envelope of gutta-
percha, which is not so isolating as has been generally supposed. During an
excursion to the neighborhood of Dover, M. de la Rive took oceasion to ob-
serve the application of electrical illumination to light-houses. The electricity
is not generated by a battery, but by magnets of steel arranged on a circum-
ference before which pass points of soft iron surrounded by a coil and placed
on the periphery of a wheel. ‘To this wheel motion is communicated by a
small steam-engine. The cost of the apparatus once defrayed, and this cost
is certainly considerable, the daily expenses are less than those of ordinary
light-houses. We learn from a letter addressed to our colleague by M. Bee-
querel, who has since studied the subject, that the light obtained by the above
means is very constant. A machine of one and a half horse power, consuming
six kilogrammes of coke per hour, suffices to produce currents which, issuing
between two retorts of charcoal, give a light equal to 300 wax candles or 7g
carcel lamps.

Professor Wartmann reported to the society the researches of M. Magnus
on the conductibility of gases. When a metallic wire is heated to redness by
the current of a battery, it is found that the duration and intensity of the heat
vary with the cireumambient gases; hydrogen, for instance, conducting heat
as a metal would do. M. Wartmann gave an account also of a memoir of M.
Rike, of Leyden, designed to explain the non-instantaneousness of the propa-
gation of the electric fluid in conductors. He compares the propagation of
electricity to the efflux of water or of elastic fluids under certain determinate
conditions. ‘T’o conclude what relates to the principal reports concerning elee-
tricity, I may here mention that M. L. Soret presented the model of a new
battery, constructed by M. Delenil, of zine and protosulphate of mercury,
which, being charged with pure water, exhibited for three months an action
perfectly constant.

The properties-of gas have formed the subject of several communications.
M. Marcet called attention to some new experiments of M. Tyndall on their
diathermal power. From these it results that simple gases absorb only 3 per cent.
of the caloric emitted by the source of heat, while compound gases absorb
much more considerable quantities of it ; olefiant gas, for instance, 81 per cent.;
oxygen and nitrogen combined in protoxide of nitrogen, 60 per cent. Vapors
absorb more than gases. M. Marcet likewise cited a memoir of M, Franckland
on the influence of the rarefaction of air upon combustion, and showed that it
may be considered as‘nothing. On the other hand, the intensity of light di-
minishes rapidly with the density ; this loss of brightuess being, in England,
0.05 to the inch of the pressure of mercury. M. L. Soret repeated before the
society an experiment of M. Deville, intended to show a property of endos-

266 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF

mose of gases in traversing porous earths. This experiment evinces that if,
when a current of hydrogen is traversing a tube of baked earth, we stop the
current, there is a vacuum produced in the apparatus, which can be only attri-
buted to the circumstance that a portion of the hydrogen passes through the
sides of the porous tube. At the same time a certain quantity of atmospheric
air is mixed with the gas remaining in the apparatus.

M. Antoine communicated new researches on the combustible part of the gas
of the fumarolles of Tuscany. Jt is composed in variable proportions of the
marsh gas and protocarbonated hydrogen of double the volume. He con-
cluded with some gencral considerations respecting the absorption of gases.
From his experiments it results that the complete solution of the gases, on which
liquid reactives exert a special action, depends on the mass of the absorbent
body and on the extent and duration of the contact. M. dela Rive announced
that M. Schénbein, who has been long occupied with the isolation of antozone
or positive oxygen, has arrived at the desired result by the trituration of fluor-
spar in water.

M. Marcet gave an account of a memoir, published in America by MM. Elliot
and Scherer, on the purity of zinc. The purest of all is that of Old Mountain,
and next the zine of Pennsylvania. On this subject, M. de la Rive announced
that M. Deville has sueceeded in obtaining very pure zinc by means of distilla-
tion, and that he has, moreover, discovered a process for procuring it in a very
pure state from the sulphate of that metal. M. Favre referred to some new
experiments of M. H. Deville for the production of artificial minerals. He has
succeeded in producing fluoride of aluminum and staurotide, and has ascer-
tained that a very small quantity of the fluoride of silicon will mineralize a very
considerable mass of base. M. P. Morin communicated an abstract of an analy-
sis which he has made of water from the fountain of Guillot at Evian. The
results are much the same with those obtained by MM. Tingey and Peschier
from the water of Cachat. In the present case special attention was paid to
the glairine and the bituminous substance contained in the water of Guillot.

But one communication has this year been presented on the subject of light,
and for that the Society is indebted to a young physicist who is not one of its
members. M. Lucien de la Rive favored us, on the occasion spoken of, with
an account of a new experiment on parallel difiraction, in which he had studied
the image of the sun. As he has announced his intention of presenting a second
memoir on this subject, I shall attempt no analysis of the former, more especi-
ally as it would involve details which the limits of this report will scarcely per-
mit. or a like reason, and because it has been already printed in the Biblio-
theque Universelle, I restrict myself to a single notice of the paper read by M.
Thury to the Society, entitled, “Remarks on an article of Silliman’s Journal,
relative to Spencer’s microscopes and the structure of the wood of the conifera ;
and considerations on microscopes in general.’”” We all remember how many
important remarks on microscopes, and how many practical instructions, as pre-
cise as they are useiul, with reference to the present state of those instruments,
are contained in the paper in question. As to the pores of the conifers, con-
trary to the figures given by the American author, M. Thury has satistied him-
self, by direct observation, that the thin membrane which, according to some
naturalists, forms the base of these pores, really exists, and the organization
remarked by M. Clarke in the old wood can be only the result of an alteration
of the organs.

NATURAL SCIENCES,
In commencing a review of this branch of the occupations of the Society,

geological communications are those which first present themselves. Professor
Favre, having lately visited Amiens in Picardy, gave the results of his exrlo-

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 267

rations, and submitted some of the instruments cut from silex which are found
in the quaternary formations of that, precinct. ‘These axes, as they are called,
occur in the bed of gravel which also contains the bones of animal species now
extinct. In the bed of white sand which overlies the stratum containing them
he met with a geode composed of well-defined crystals of hyaline quartz. ‘The
position of these crystals, as M. Favre maintains, shows that they were formed
since man has inhabited the earth. This recent origin of the quartz would ex-
plain how crystals of that substance come to be found on a projecting point of
one of the axessexhibited to the society, since they could only have been formed
after the translation of the gravel and the axes.

From the same colleague we received an account of some geological obser-
vations which he has recently made in Maurienne. On the right bank of the
Are, between St. Jean and the pass of Encombres, he found that the forma-
tions were folded or bent like the bottom of a boat, while the rock of the coal
formation comprised between the former locality and the tunnel of the Alps
presents, on the contrary, a sort of fan-like structure, and a vault in the eastern
part of this vast group. From these observations he concludes that the forma-
tion which contains the anthracites between St. Michel and Modane pertains
to the true coal formation, that it is covered by the triassic rock, and that the
liassic and nummulitic strata occupy, in relation to the other formations, the
same position as in other countries.

A statement was also given by M. Favre of the observations and experi-
ments of M. Daubrée on metamorphism, whereby the latter has shown that, in
explaining this class of phenomena, the action of water is to be taken largely
into account. With these results of M. Daubrée our colleague collated the dis-
covery of M. Sozby of the existence, in all granitic quartz, of myriads of small
cavities, filled, some with gas, others with liquid. He further called to our
notice a discussion which had arisen in the Geological Society of London. M.
Murchison has observed, over a great extent of Scotland, gneiss resting upon
quartz, even argillaceous schists and limestone resting upon granite. This im-
mense group could not owe its origin to a local inversion of strata, like those
observed here and there in the Alps. M. Nicol earnestly contested the exist-
ence of this overlying gneiss. ‘This report gave occasion to M. de Saussure
to remark that M. Logan has described this superposed gneiss as existing in
Canada to such an extent as to exclude all idea of an inversion.

At our last meeting, M. Favre recounted an excursion which he had made
with M. de Morlot to the cone of erosion of the Tiniere, near Montreux, and
explained the theories of that savant on what he calls the Roman deposit, four
feet below the present surface; the deposit of the age of bronze, six feet be-
low the former; and, ten feet lower still, the deposit of the age of stone; together
with the reasonsyon which he founds those distinctions and names.

The Society has been favored by Professor Pictet with numerous communi-
cations relative to paleontology, of which the following are the most important.
Hirst, a notice on the succession of cephalopod molluses, during the chalk period,
in the region of the Swiss Alps and the Jura. He derives from a detailed study
of the fossils contained in the cretaceous strata of Ste. Croix, and their compari-
son with cotemporaneous repositories, an argument in favor of the idea pro-
pounded by M. Barrande, that two successive faunas must necessarily have ex-
isted together for some time, and he concludes by showing that paleontological
faunas distinguished throughout by marked characters are not ordinarily sus-
ceptible of any rigorous limitation. MM. Claparede and Favre took occasion
to remark how much the conclusions of M. Pictet must in future complicate the
task of the geologist who undertakes to determine the age of a formation.

Led by his study of the neocomian fossils to determine a great number of
fragments of unrolled cephalopods, M. Pictet has attentively considered their

a

268 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF

septa, and has found that there is no connexion between the form of these —

septa and the generic characters. On the contrary, he has arrived at this
unexpected fact that the septa have undergone what might be called a sort
of geological evolution. Their form is a character not of the species, but of the
epoch in which the cephalopod was alive. M. Pictet recognizes the two follow-
ing laws: 1. All the neocomian species have the superior lateral lobe divided
into unequal parts; 2. The proportions of the inferior lateral lobe vary with
the geologic age. M. Pictet further informed us that near Montiers, in Switzer-
land, occurs a site analogous to that of Mauremont, formed, that is to say, by
the fauna of the basin of Paris, in superficial rents or fissures. Below, in the
jurassic formation, bones of the Megalosaurus have been discovered ; a fact of
interest, because that reptile constituted, with the Iguanodon and the Ieosaurus,
the only great terrestrial reptiles of the jurassic period. At Mauremont have
been found a jaw-bone of the Rhagatherium and a tooth of the horse and ox,
respectively—teeth, which have evidently proceeded from an intermixture later
than the eocene fauna, which, till now, has been found in Switzerland free from
all accessions.

We owe to the same colleague an analysis of a memoir by M. Desor, relative
to the question of the fossil man. The author combats the opinion pronounced
by M. Pictet, that there has been no appearance of new species since the com-
mencement of the quaternary epoch, but only extinction of species. To prove
that during the quaternary period new species have appeared, M. Desor remarks
that certain fishes, particularly the Cyprinus idus, are found only in the lakes
of the north of Italy, and these lakes having been filled with ice during the
glacier period, the creation of the fish must have been subsequent. M. Pictet
refutes this remark by observing that when two identical fishes are found in two

basins without communication, we have recourse, in order to explain this fact,

to any other hypothesis rather than that of a special creation for each basin.
On this occasion M. de Candolle called attention to the great difficulty which
exists, in some cases, of comprehending how certain aquatic plants could have
reappeared on our lakes after the glacier period; though M. Wartmann was of
opinion that their seeds might during the interval preserve their germinative
faculty.

M. de Saussure exhibited the skull of a stag, found in a canal at Longmalle
(Geneva,) and presenting’ a striking peculiarity; it bears the mark of blows
given with cutting implements, and the antlers have been separated by a stroke
of a hatchet. It is probable that this skull was buried in the sands on the bor-
der of the lake in the same manner with the bones which are taken from the
lacustrian sites. Our colleague also submitted to the Society some observations
made in the pass of Bernardino in Oregon. Here are to be seen vast extents
of rocks smoothed as if by glaciers, though without strie ; the smoothness being
attributable to the action of the sand which, in those regions, the wind trans-
ports in great quantities, while all the edges of the rocks exhibit channellings
in the direction of the prevailing wind.

M. de Loriol, then a free associate, presented a memoir on the fossils of the
middle neocomian of Saleve. This neocomian has a peculiar faczes, character-
ized by the Ammonites radiatws, which might be named the jurassic facies,
because all the deposits of the Jura pertain to it. The neocomian of’ the Voi-
rons and of Mole pertains to the alpine facies, with the deposits of the Alps,
which possess characteristic fossils. These two facies often meet side by side
in the south of France. For four years MM. Pictet and Loriol have been col:
lecting numerous specimens of the fossils of Salave. The latter has distin-
guished 138 species of invertebrata pertaining to Molluses, Annelida, Echinide
and Spongiaria. Thus far he has met with no Polyps. In general the pre-
servation of these fossils is imperfect, specimens invested with their shells being

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PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 269

seldom found. A large number of inside moulds, especially of Mollusks, offer
a singular peculiarity. Certain portions of their surface are covered with ser-
pulz and encrusting bryozoa, which have evidently lived on these moulds.
The middle neocomian of Saleve may be divided into six strata, which present,
paleontologically, certain differences, but which contain an assemblage of fos-
sils pertaining to two distinct faunas, both carefully described and characterized
by M. Loriol.

In answer to some objections of M. Favre to the epithet alpine as applied to
the neocomian facies of the Voirons, M. Pictet pointed out that there are in the
neocomian two very distinct faunas; one of which occurs in the Jura and
throughout France; the other, whose fossils are wholly different, commences
at Sentis, traverses the small cantons, the Bernese Oberland, the canton of Fri-
bourg, and extends to Chatel St. Denis and Bex. It is again found at the Voi-
rons, at Mole, whence it stretches along the Isere, traverses the higher and
lower Alps, and following the prolongation of these mountains reaches Padua
and Venice. This fauna is characterized by great numbers of unrolled cephal-
opods. ‘There are points of contact where these two faunas meet, as if by digi-
tations. Saléve forms a jurassic digitation, the south an alpine digitation.

Botany has not, this year, played any considerable part at our meetings. M.
Claparede recounted the new experiments of M. Pasteur on fermentation. This
savant has observed that the infusory animalcules which are developed in fer-
menting liquids continue to live when deprived of oxygen. But in the opinion
of all microscopists, these pretended animalcules are in reality vegetables,
which should be classed with the semi-cellular algze.

Professor Wartmann communicated the result of experiments which, at the
request of M. Thury, he had made on the influence which excessive cold exer-
cises upon seeds. Seeds, some of which had been exposed for a half hour to a
temperature of 57° centigrade, and others for twenty minutes to one of 110°,
vegetated, when sown in spring, as well as the seeds of the same species which
had been protected from cold. It results that the greatest cold we can pro-
duce does not destroy or even enfeeble the vitality of seeds.

" M. Casimir de Candolle, who was not then a colleague, read a memoir on the
artificial production of cork, which he has had an opportunity of observing
during a sojourn in Africa. This paper having been printed in the sixteenth
volume of the Memoirs of the Society, which will contain the report I have now
the honor to present to you, no analysis of it is necessary. Your president has
also had the privilege of making some communications to you. I submitted to
you my researches respecting the family of the Hypoxylee, ( Pyrenomycetes,
Fr.,) and endeavored to show that to this entire group of fungi should be
applied the same principles of classification which I have adopted for the
tribe of the Hysterinex. This memoir being but the development of § 4 of the
paper which you have caused to be printed in the sixteenth volume of our col-
lection, I refer to that paragraph all who may be interested in the subject. I
took. occasion to bring to your notice the observations of .M. de Bary on the
Cystopus candidus, a minute Uredinea, which forms white spots on the leaves
of the Scorzoneras, in the spores of which the Professor of Fribourg tells us he
has seen, when they are sown in water, the formation of zoospores furnished
with two flagellary cilia. M.de Bary also tells us that, in certain conditions,
he has seen zoospores formed in the tubes issuing from the spores of the cham-
pignon of the potato, ( Peronospora devastatrix.) I communicated to you, in
the last place, the researches of M. Hicks on the gonidia of Lichens, from
which it would seem to result that a multitude of pretended aerial Algz,
described under the names of Protococcus, Palmoglea, §c., are but stages of
development of these gonidia.

Some very interesting communications on zoology have been received by the
Society in the course of the year. By M. Claparede our attention was called

°

270 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF

w

to experiments conducted in London, by M. Marcet, with a view of determin-
ing whether the toxic action of alcohol makes its impression on the brain
through the medium of the circulation or of the nerves. The experiments in
question show that the circulation is the essential intermediary. Our colleague
further laid before us the result of researches, in which he has been engaged
for three years, on the evolution of arachnida in the egg, and accompanied
his developments with several plates. A detailed analysis of this remarkable
memoir would involve so many particulars, and necessitate the use of so many
technical terms, that I am with reluctance compelled to forego it. The result.
of the phenomena imports that the embryo originally rolled up on the back is
in the end rolled up on the belly. To this memoir M. Claparede added some
expressions on the utility of these embryological investigations in the comparison
of the appendages of the spider with those of other arthropods. He shows
that the protognaths or forciples of the spider are homologues of the antennz
of the larvee of insects and of the antennze of the second pair of the crustacea,
while the deutognaths are homologues of the mandibles of the crustacea and
of insects. M. Claparede also presented us with some drawings of animals but
little known, which he had observed in the Hebrides. The first of these are
representations of two species of worms of the group of the Sipunculoide.
Another represents an <Actinotrocha branchiata, a marine animal for which
hitherto no place has been found in any division of the animal kingdom. M.
Claparedé suspects this strange looking creature to be the larva of a worm.
Lastly, our colleague gave us an account of the physiological researches of M.
Voit in regard to the pearl Unio, and explained the reasons which render doubt-
ful the respiratory functions of the pretended branchia of the Lamellibranch,

M. de Candolle presented, on the part of M. Guerin-Menneville, a report on
the attempts made tor the acclimatation, in France and Algiers, of the silk-worm
of the Ailanthus, ( Bomby@ cynthia.)

M. de Saussure continued his communications on the natural history of
Mexico. He spoke first of the Vampiride, cheiropterous animals with a pecu-
liar membranaceous foliation seated on the nose, and showed, as specimens,
those particularly of the Mormopsis Blainvillei, which, till now, were found in
no museums but those of London and Berlin. He afterwards described a Cen-
turio, with a face singularly distorted, and withal more obtuse than that of any
of the Mammals, man included, but with a skull so greatly flattened as to pro-
duce a resemblance to the frog. M. de Saussure further presented a Coati, of
which a new species of late has been erroneously formed.

From M. Humbert the Society received some very interesting statements
with respect to his explorations in Ceylon; and first, in regard to many species
of terrestrial Planariz, of which he exhibited drawings, and several of which,
discovered by M. Humbert, are distinguished by the malleiform or crescent-
shaped enlargement of their anterior portion. M.Claparede followed this com-
munication with some remarks on the anatomy of one of these species. M. Hum-
bert proceeded to give some particulars respecting the land leeches, which are
very common, and not a little inconvenient in certain parts of the island—so
common, indeed, that it is impossible to keep goats in such places. At another
meeting he gave an account of the general aspect of the ornithological fauna of
Ceylon, and exhibiting numerous specimens, described the habits of the curious
birds which he. placed before us.

I shall have coneluded the portion of my report which relates to zoolog
when I mention the memoir read at our last session, by M. Victor Fatio, on the
different varieties of frogs which frequent the environs of Geneva. In this
memoir, which is accompanied with colored plates, the author describes, under
the name of Rana gracilis, a new species found in the marshes of Puplinge,
and produces some fine specimens of it.

oe ee a

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 271

The foregoing is but a colorless sketch of the transactions of the Society
during the year which terminates to-day.* Yet, however incomplete, it may
suffice to show that among the members of this association the love of science
and of labor has not diminished, and that it continues to procure, for minds
capable of appreciating them, those pure and elevated pleasures of which the
study of the works of the Creator is an inexhaustible source. May He who has
placed us in a country so rich in subjects of research and meditation continue
to preserve you, that by your example and instruction you may encourage
those who follow you in life to strive likewise to lift some of those veils which
still hide from us so many mysteries, and worthily to fill the vacancies which
the will of God accomplishes in our midst.

We have this year had but a single loss to lament—that, namely, of our
senior member, Prof. Maunoir. We have not of late seen. him at our sessions,
but the former records of the Society attest the interest with which he regarded
its proceedings. In the brief sketch which I can here give, and while regret-
ting that the office of commemorating his eminent merits has not fallen to some
one better qualified, I shall be held excused if I touch rather on those works
of our deceased colleague which bear a direct relation to the physical and natu-
ral sciences than those pertaining to the art which he practiced with so much
distinction.

Jean Pierre Maunoir was born October 10, 1768, at Geneva, and was led at
an early age, in the pursuit of his surgical studies, to visit first Paris and
afterwards England. ‘The first publication by which he became known was
published in 1812, and was entitled Physiological and practical memoirs on
aneurism and the ligature of the arteries. His reputation was still further
extended by his writings on the organization of the iris and the operation for
artificial pupil, in which he demonstrated that the iris is composed of a double
muscular system, of fibres disposed in radii, proceeding from the larger border
of the iris towards the centre of the pupil and of circular fibres surrounding
the pupil like a ring. He applied his views on the function of these different
fibres to the operation for artificial pupil, and succeeded in a great number of
cases in obtaining pupils whose form was exactly that which was indicated in
advance by the arrangement of the muscular fibres divided. The reputation
which these publications procured him was advanced to a still higher point by
the address, the skill, and the presence of mind which he brought to such deli-
cate operations as those which regard the sight. I pass over various disserta-
tions by our colleague on subjects of surgery, on the medullary fungus and
hematodes, (1820.) on hydrocele of the neck, on amputations and immediate
reunion, on cataract and the means of remedying it, in order to notice an essay
published in 1842 on the adjustment of the eye to different distances. He
attributed this faculty to a change of form in the ocular globe produced by
the contraction of the external muscles. The recent progress effected in the
anatomy and physiology of the eye no longer authorizes us to admit this con-
clusion, but teaches us to seek the explanation of the phenomenon in the inte-
rior of that organ and in the movements of the crystalline. The diversified
labors of Maunoir procured him many honorary distinctions. Without speaking
of the place he occupied in the scientific societies of Geneva, I shall merely
recall that he was a correspondent of the French Institute and an associate of
a great number of learned societies of the highest distinction in Europe and
even in America. He loved science in all its branches, and those of us who
remember his attendance at our meetings will not have forgotten the intelligent

*(June 13, 1861.) It should be added, to justify more fully the expressions above em-
ployed, that many publications by members of the Society, and some of them among the
most important, are not mentioned at the meetings.

972 SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA.

interest with which he addressed his inquiries to the authors of the memoirs
there read, in order to develop a clearer idea of the theories advanced or the
facts recounted. Nor will they fail to recall the kindliness of his manners, the
promptness to oblige, and the perfect good-will which marked all his conduct
toward his colleagues. It was on the 17th of January last that he terminated,
at the age of 92, his long and admirable career.

The loss thus sustained by the Society has found a compensation in the acces-
sion of two new members, MM. Perceval de Loroil and Casimir de Candolle.
In connexion with the latter nomination, it may not be amiss to say that no
more agreeable duty could have attended the discharge of my functions as
president than that of signing the diploma of membership of the son of the
excellent colleague who is to succeed me in this chair, and grandson of the
distinguished master who once honored me with his counsels, his instructions,
and his friendship.

After what was said by my predecessor, M. Pictet, in the annual report of
1860, respecting the incorporation into our body of the Free Associates, I need
only add that we have had no cause to regret this change in our organization.
The regular attendance of several of them has contributed much to the inter-
est of our sessions, and we may hope that they will in future take even a
still more active part in our deliberations and enhance their favors by occa-
sional communications. Alas, while writing these lines I cannot forget that
two of the names which we had gladly inscribed on our lists will next year’be
no longer found there, and that the void which they leave is but an imperfect
symbol of the greatness of the loss, not only to their families and friends, but
to the community and the country. The two free associates whom we no
longer possess are the former syndic, M. Barde, and Dr. Rilliet.

REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY

OF GENEVA, 1862.

BY PROF. DE CANDOLLE, PRESIDENT.

TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY C. A. ALEXANDER,

GENTLEMEN: In presenting, as a rule of the Society requires, a revicw of
its transactions during the past year, I find my task singularly facilitated by
the exactness with which your proceedings have been recorded by our learned
secretary, M.Claparede. Yet I am sensible that, as regards the relative length
of the articles, the same rule will not apply to his labors and to mine. An
analysis, however abridged, of memoirs already published or about to appear
in the forthcoming volume of our series, would be little less than absurd. Our
reports are addressed to men of special culture, who prefer to consult the origi-
nal work, and are by no means embarrassed by the necessity of recurring, for
instance, to the Bibliotheque Universelle, or the Memoires of our Society. I
shall, therefore, simply indicate in many cases the place where dissertations
are to be found which occupy a large space in our records, while other motives
will induce me to pass rapidly over certain communications which possessed,
at the moment, a lively interest. I speak now of the information given respect-
ing discoveries made in various countries respecting new works and the opin-
ions delivered by learned men on controverted subjects. Communications of
this nature, alvays numerous and varied, while they keep us apprised of the
progress of science, and assist us in forming an opinion of men and things,
have in them either nothing original, or if anything original and of intrinsic
interest, it consists in the opinions pronounced regarding some work or method
or theory; and it is obvious that, in order to remain habitually frank and un-
reserved, appreciations thus verbally given should not be made public. One
of the charms of our association consists in conversation upon our own labors
or those of learned foreigners. Let us preserve for this part of our exercises
the advantage of being undivulged; it is one which, to a society like ours,
limited, confidential, and unofficial, it would be annoying to lose. I shall pro-
teed now to enumerate the series of our labors, classing and abridging them,
and also suppressing much for the reasons just assigned.

ASTRONOMY.

To Professor Gautier we are indebted for an account of the observatories
of Zurich and of several cities of Germany which he has had an opportunity
of examining in detail. He has also, in numerous and varied communications,
kept us informed of the advances made in astronomy. His views respecting
comets* have been developed and completed in reference to an article in the

_ * Resumé de divers travaux récents relatifs aux cométes. (Biblioth Univ., Archives des
Sc. Phys. et Nat., Fevrier, 1862.)
18 s

274 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF

Bibliotheque Universelle, published during the present year. Colonel Gautier
also favored us with observations made by himself, particularly those relative
to the solar eclipse of 1860; while Professor Plantamour has continued to insert
in our Memoires the series of astronomical observations made at the observa-

tory of Geneva.
PHYSICS.

Is it among cosmic phenomena, or those which fall within the province of
terrestrial physics, that we should class the aurora borealis? This question is
no longer an open one since our learned colleague, M. de la Rive, has made it
the subject of his profound research. On different occasions, and especially in
an extensive memoir now in course of publication in our collection, he has fur-
nished the proof that the boreal and austral auroras are a phenomenon produced
in the highest region of the atmosphere by the encounter of opposite elec-
tricities. The higher region is habitually charged with positive electricity,
while the earth is ordinarily negative, and the lower stratum of the air acts as
an isolating medium. The winds drive the electric vapor towards the two
poles where the discharges take place. M. de la Rive holds that, according to
the laws of terrestrial magnetism, an equal conductibility of the maritime or
wet surfaces being assumed, the manifestations ought to be simultaneous at
both poles, and he insists that observation has in fact confirmed this simulta-
neousness. In order still better to demonstrate his theory, our ingenious,col-
league has had an apparatus constructed representing the terrestrial globe, and
so arranged as to be capable of realizing all the conditions of magnetism; and
with this, by the application of electricity, he has produced the different phe-
nomena of the aurora, its glimmering light, its luminous jets surrounding the
poles, &c., exciting the admiration even of those who take little interest in the
theoretical question or the difficulties necessary to be surmounted in procuring
so decisive an imitation. In this apparatus, constructed at Geneva, in the
atelier of Professor Thury, and under the direction of M. Eugene Schwerd, a
sphere of wood represents the terrestrial globe. It is so contrived as to pre-
sent at the extremities of its horizontal axis two magnetic poles, around which
the discharges of a Ruhmkorff apparatus produce luminous effects. The sur-
face of the globe having been moistened, is covered here and there with small
metallic plates, from which proceed wires terminating in a galvanometer at
some distance. The deviations of the needle, when the polar discharges take
place, are analogous, in their minutest phases, to those manifested in the com-
mon telegraphic apparatus during an aurora borealis. A peculiar arrangement
allows of the artificial reproduction of the perturbations of the magnetic. needle
which accompany the auroral phenomenon. The memoir of M. de la Rive
comprises a discussion on the nature of these perturbations and on the direction
of the electric currents to which terrestrial magnetism is attributable. It is
enough to announce these investigations to attract to them the attention of
physicists.

M. Wartmann, senior, being, in September last, at Cologny, and therefore at
a certain elevation above the left bank of the lake, several times observed, half
an hour after the setting of the sun, singular effects produced by mirage. On
the other side of the lake, or rather towards the middle of it, an island would
make its appearance, presenting ranges of trees in a reversed position, while
beyond this isle the lake retained its usual liquid appearance.

Professor Wartmann, junior, repeated before the Society the recent experi-
ments of M. Plateau on bubbles of soap, of varied forms as well as much per-
sistency, obtained by mixing with soapsuds a small quantity of glycerine, and
causing the bubbles to attach themselves to iron wires arranged in different
manners. At a subsequent session M. Wartmann exhibited an apparatus of
the same kind, still more varied, so as to produce more perfectly than by former

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 275

processes the phenomena of coloration in extremely thin surfaces of the liquid.
The dark part presents not more than ;93555 of a millimetre, whence we may
conclude, says M. Wartmann, that the radius of the sensible activity of molecu-
Jar attraction is below 55,555 of a millimetre.

M. de la Rive submitted to inspection a minimum thermometer of Casella,
an ingenious instrument, in which, instead of a movable index, there is a lateral
reservoir adroitly constructed, into which the mercury flows when it rises. M.
P. Plantamour described to us the injector of Giffart, designed as a substitute
for the supply pump in steam-engines. M. Eugene de Morsier exhibited a
erust taken from boilers of those engines, which is impenetrable by water,
and thus gives rise to accidents.

Our regretted colleague, M. Ritter, of whom I propose presently to speak,
had presented to the Society a curious memoir* on the gamut of the mathema-
ticians compared with that of the musicians. M. Alexander Prevostt subse-
quently analyzed this memoir, and, after deducing from it certain consequences,
proceeded to compare them with the opinions and practice of musicians. Both
memoirs having been published, we merely indicate them to the savants who
interest themselves in questions of this nature.

Professor Plantamour and M. Hirsch, director of the observatory of Nenché-
tel, have commenced a series of observations to determine the relative position
of Geneva and Neuchatel, by availing themselves of the electric telegraph.
The highly improved instruments would have yielded satisfactory results had
not causes arising out of the state of the sky and of the telegraphic lines inter-
rupted the proceedings. ‘The observation from Neuchatel to Geneva gave a
ditference of longitude amounting to 3/ 12'.22; but when the observers would
have changed their stations, in erder to eliminate the personal equation, the sky,
had become overcast, and a derangement of the line prevented a prosecution:
of the work. The meteorological observations of the Great St. Bernard, com~
pared with those of Geneva, have long been a subject of investigation, but sue~
cessive improvements in the systems and processes of observation had rendered.
desirable a comparison after the lapse of the last twenty years. This has been.
undertaken by M. Plantamour in a first memoir relative to St. Bernard, pub--
lished in the Bibliotheque Universelle, January, 1862, under the title of Notes:
on the periodical variations of temperature and atmospheric pressure at the
Great St. Bernard.

A memoir by M. Ch. Martins, on the increase of temperature during the night,
above the surface of the earth to a certain height, has given occasion to M..
Marcet, who had been previously occupied with this subject, to make new ex-
periments. They have confirmed certain differences which he had remarked
between his own facts and those observed by M. Martins at Montpellier. A.
new series of observations was undertaken by M. Marcet with the view of
determining whether the decrease of temperature exists above an aqueous sur~
face of great extent. He ascertained that the phenomenon does not occur above:
water, and that it is even scarcely sensible in the immediate neighborhood of.
a large liquid surface, so that in effect there is, at the moment of the setting
of the sun, a difference of from 2° to 3° between the temperature at a certain
height above the land and above the water. The memoir of M. Marcet was.
published in the Bibliotheque Universelle, November, 1861.

M. Soret has visited the glacier of Shafloch, which M. Thury had examined
the yeer before, and remarked the aureola structure previously noticed. He
observed, moreover, that the entire surface of the ice was covered with small
striz nearly parallel in each aurecola, but not having the same direction in the
different fragments. ‘These small striz, which were also observed by M. Soret

* Memoires de Ul’ Institut Genevois, in quarto, vol. vii.
t Biblioth. Univ. Archives des Sc. Phys. et Nat., April, 1862.

946 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF

ad
s

in some parts of the ice of the glaciers, might be compared, as regards appear-
ance and size, to those presented by the skin at the extremity of the fingers.

The river Orbe, from observations of M. Chaix, has not the same tempera-
ture with the lake of Brenets; the lake showing, July 4, 1861, 18° at a rather
shallow point, and the Orbe 11° at the point of its issue. ‘This is attributed
by M. Chaix to four affluents, with a temperature of about 64 degrees.

General Dufour brought to the notice of the Society operations in progress
on the territory of Switzerland for the measurement of an are of the meridian
directed from northern Germany towards Italy.

M. Henri De Saussure exhibited a chart of the environs of Mexico, drawn

from observations of his own combined with former maps.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Several geological charts in course of publication have been communicated
tous. One of them is the topographical chart of the canton of Vaud, on a
scale of soigq, Which the government of that canton has ordered, and the
coloring of which on geological principles has been committed to M. Renevier.
Another relating to the geology of Savoy has long occupied the attention of
M. A. Favre, who favored us with a view of the topographical chart which is
to serve him as a base, as well as a chart of the environs of Mont Blanc, geo-
logically colored by hand. An account was given us by the same member of
the meeting, last year, of the Geological Society of France, in Savoy, and of
the researches of M. Heer on the climate and vegetation of the tertiary epoch,
-asubject which has also been discussed by one of our own members in the
Bibliotheque Universelle.* We are further indebted to M. Favre for a view of
certain plates designed to popularize the ideas and facts of geology and physi-
eal geography among the English people. Among communications relating to
the pursuits of different savants, 1 must not forget an interesting account by
Dr. Claparade, t of observations made in Sweden and Norway, on the succes-
sion of levels in the Scandinavian peninsula, and on the crustacea discovered
at the bottom of lakes, after existence had been predicted ; the lakes having
been heretofore in communication with the sea, and being even belowit. ‘These
crustacea have been found to be analogues of, or similar to, species existing
further north in the polar seas.

The mountain of Saléve, explored by Deluc, De Saussure, Necker, Alph.
Favre, and so many other geologists, and which is known among the Genevese
as “the mountain,” so great is the partiality with which they regard it—this
mountain has in the course of the year been the scene of unexpected discoveries
aud observations.

In their casual walks, MM. Grasset, Chomel, and Revon had observed four
caverns situated above the village cf Coin, and had brought away some bones
and fragments of pottery, which seem to belong to the epoch called the age of
bronze. Professor Thury, on this discovery, caused excavations to be made in
one of these grottoes, and found, at the depth of half a metre, the remains of a
fireplace or hearth, with tracks leading to it. Hesupposes that some of the an-
cient inhabitants sought refuge in these caverns, to escape the consequences of
an invasion; and he proposes to prosecute his researches to more decisive results.
It is the position of Saléve, however, which is perhaps the most extraordinary
feature of the mountain. It shuts in our valley with a lofty calcareous ram
part, forming a natural limit, which the policy of states has alone refused tc
recognize. M. Favre has determined the cause of this abnormal position.
Saléve stands in the continuation of a great anticlinal lme—that is, of a line of

*M. Alph. de Candolle, May, 1862.
t Biblioth. Univ. Archives, April, 1862.

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. Ohi

dislocation and plissement, distinguishable from the banks of the Isar, in Bava-
ria, as far as Lausanne, and continued, according to M. Favre, by the uplands
of Boisy, in Chablais, and by Mount Salive. The direction of these points is
in a right line, as M. Favre has shown on a geological chart of Switzerland.
Thus the molasse has been cleft throughout this whole line, and the subjacent
jurassic limestone been lifted up—at no point, however, so high as on the site
of Saleve.

One of the last excursions of M. Favre was around Mont Blane, in which
he especially examined the Bas-Valais, and found at Mont Chemin, near Mar-
tigny, belemnites pertaining to the lias, which are found above the cargneule
representing the lias. He found on the mountain of Maya, near the col lerret,
echini and fragments of the branches of encrinites which characterize the up-
per jurassic formation. The deposits in question are at about fifty feet from
granitic rocks of Mont Blane, and are covered by considerable masses of erys-
talline limestone.

Professor F. J. Pictet read a memoir on the unrolled ammonites of cretaceous
formations. ‘Till now these fossils have been found only in fragments, and it
was easy to attribute to two distinct kinds, portions of the same animal. The
author has pointed out many similar errors, which he has been enabled to cor-
rect by means of more complete specimens. This memvir will form part of
M. Pictet’s work on Swiss paleontology. In a note on the parallelism of the
middie and upper cretaceous faunas, M. Pictet has aimed to show that the dis-
tinction made by Orbigny, of eight cretaceous stages, although holding good as
to large tracts, is insufficient for the study of details and of the succession of
faunas. He compares the middle and lower stages of the Swiss Jura, the north-
west of Germany and the south of France, and confirms the observation of M.
Lory that the neocomian faunas differed according to their geographical posi-
tion. Not that they have varied uniformly over their whole extent. By the
side of numerous analogies we see local differences which evince either migra-
tions or different, although simultaneous, physical influences. In the discus-
sion which ensued upon the reading of M. Pictet’s memoir, some difficult ques-
tions of science were broached. Among other things, the proximity, sometimes
considerable, of analogous formations furnished with different fossils, was spoken
of, and facts of the same nature were pointed out by M. Ciaparede in the dis-
tribution of existing faunas, according to the depth of closely neighboring arms
of the sea.

The curious discoveries of M. Lartet, tending to prove the antiquity of the
presence of man in western Europe, were the subject of communications from
M. Pictet, which he has published in the Bibliotheque Universelle for 1861.

<rofessor Thury stated his objections to the opinions of M. Marlot on the
time occupied in the formation of the cone of Tinere, at the east extremity of
Lake Leman. He has attentively explored the valley whence proceeds the det-
ritus borne towards the lake, and he does not think that it can have furnished
materials with the regularity supposed. On the contrary, it appeared to him
that the quantity of material removed from the surface must have trequently
varied.

ZOOLOGY.

M. Pictet exhibited moulds from two skulls of gorillas, whose diversity is
sufficiently great to induce a suspicion of the existence of two distinct species.
Dr. Dor presented important memoirs on vision, as well in man as in certain
classes of animals. The author attributes myopy (short-sightedness) to a too
great length of the axis of the ¢ye, while the opposite imperfection (hyperme-
tropy) results from too short an axis. He has found between a myopic and a
hypermetropic eye a difference of as much as fourteen millimetres in the length
of the optic axis. M. Dor carefully distinguishes the effect of age on the

278 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF

accommodation and refraction of the eye. In a subsequent memoir he hag
reviewed the opinions of M. Donders on astigmatism or irregularities of refrac-
tion in the larger circles of the eye, an irregularity which always exists, more
or less, but which in some cases may considerably alter the vision. 'The irreg-
ular curvature of the cornea is ordinarily the cause of it, but that ot vhe erys-
talline also exists, and the result is that cylindrical glasses of different focal
power may be eligibly employed. Numerous details are entered into respect-
ing the effects of asiigmatism and the proper means for ascertaining the cause,
as well as supplying a remedy by a judicious choice of glasses.

The composite eyes of arthropods form the subject of a special memoir by
M. Dor, printed in the Bibliotheque Universelle tor December, 1861. In this
the author, after reviewing the opinions propounded by anatomists, gives an
account of direct experiments made by himself on the transmission of images
through the cornea of sundry insects, and arrives at the conclusion that every
facet of the composite eye is analogous to the single eye of one of the verte-
brata—the cupuliform envelope being analogous to the retina.

M. Claparede read a memoir on the oligochetous worms of the environs of
Geneva. These animals, having until now been little studied, have conse-
quently presented a great number of new species and even new genera.
Figures delineated by the author make us acquainted with some of them, but
his chief object has been to describe the singular modifications of the repro-
ductive apparatus. This apparatus, analogous to that of certain annelida
(Pachydrilus) previously described by our author, shows that the excretory
organ of the segments becomes now a vas deferens and an oviduct, and now a
receptacle of the semen. ‘The oligochetze live in fresh water, but as marine ani-
mals always offer a wider field to the researches of zoologists, our learned sec-
retary has not failed to visit, as often as circumstances would permit, the shores
of the ocean. A sojourn in Normandy has enabled him to study the Turbel-
laria and the Tubularia, whose development and mode of reproduction offered
him some remarkable peculiarities. As one of the fruits of this excursion, he
has designed a series of plates relative to the embryology of marine worms,
which were exhibited to this Society. Dr. W. Marcet communicated to us
from London the result of some observations which he has been making on the
gastric juice of the dog. When this juice is secreted under the influence of
cartilaginous bones, it contains a peculiar substance analogous to the peptone
of Lehmann.

BOTANY.

Professor Marect presented an analysis of the labors of M. Daubeny on the
absorption of different substances, particularly poisonous ones, by the roots of
plants, (Beblioth. Univ. Archiv. Se., February, 1862.) M. Thury, who has
been for some time occupied with a treatise on vegetable physiology, recapitu-
lated the experiments of divers authors on the transpiration of vegetables ; he
has repeated many of them, and among other results has satisfied himself that
the phenomenon, as had been asserted, continues when the plant is placed in
water.

It has been said that the egret or tuft of the composite is often separated
from the body of the grain, and hence does not favor the dissem‘nation, as had
been supposed. M. Thury, having observed on one of the summits of the
Jura large quantities of the grains of the Cirsiwm transported thither by the
winds, ascertained that three out of thirty still bore the seeds with them. The
compiler of the present report, being in habits of correspondence with divers
travellers, communicated interesting letters from M. Sagot on the flora of
Guiana, and of M. Welwitsch on the vegetation of the high country of Huilla,
in the interior of southwestern Africa, ( Bibhioth. Univ., July, 1861.) M. Duby
gave an account of a memoir published by M. Bail on an hypoxylon which
propagates its mycelium in the interior of aged trunks of trees.

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 279

M. J. Miter, of the canton of Aargau, presented an important memoir on
the classification of lichens and on the species of the environs of Geneva.
The total number of our lichens exceeds 500, which the author enumerates
and gives the description of 20 new species. The principles of classification
adopted by M. Miller are analyzed and developed in the forthcoming volume
of our Memoirs. There can be no doubt that it will attract the attention of
lichenographers, seeing that this branch of botany has fallen into singular con-
fusion resulting from the multiplicity of new characters and novel ideas intro-
duced into it.

Local botany and descriptive botany scarcely adapt themselves to public
lectures ; our sessions, therefore, give but an inexact idea of the researches of
several of our associates in these two departments of the science. I shall
content myself with mentioning that M. Reuter has published in the course of
the year a second and much augmented edition of his Catalogue of vascular
plants of the environs of Geneva, and M. Boissier an important monograph of
the tribe of the Huphorhie, in the fifteenth volume of the Prodromus.

De Canbou_e Prize.—The quinquennial prize, founded by A. Pyramus de
Candolle, for the best monograph of a genus or family of plants, has this year
claimed the attention of the Society. Contrary to what has heretofore oc-
curred, our own countrymen have not entered into the competition for it. Two
memoirs have been received. One of these was from M. de Bunge, professor
in the University of Dorpat, on the Anabasex, a tribe of the Salsolacez or
Chenopodiacez. ‘The author having explored the shores of the Caspian sea
and the interior of Persia, has there discovered several species of these plants,
and the affluence of the materials at his disposal has enabled him to compile a
very complete monograph. He has enlarged the number of genera from
twelve to sixteen, while that of species continues to be sixty, uctwithstanding
the assignment of fourteen new species. Four charts or tables added to the
text indicate the geographical distribution and relative affinities of the genera.
The descriptions, given in Latin, are greatly developed. The second memoir
was from M. Bayer, inspector in chief of the Austrian railroads. The author
treats of the genus Jv/za, in relation principally to the numerous modifications
of specific forms. He has tried a new system of notation, by letters, to ex-
press the varieties and subvarieties, each letter indicating a certain modification
of character. This original idea deserves attention under 4 practical point of
view. It is difficult to devermine whether it would adapt itself to more nu-
merous genera and to modifications of. very different value which exist in cer-
tain groups. ‘The jury which you nominated to decide between the com-
petitors was struck with the value of the two memoirs submitted to them,
both seeming to deserve high approbation; yet as there was but a single pre-
mium to award, it was considered that the monograph of M. de Bunge possessed
superior claims on account of the number of species studied, the difficulty of
the analysis, and variety of questions examined. The Imperial Academy of
St. Petersburg, to which the author belongs, has equally appreciated the im-
portance of his work, and directed it to be inserted in its memoirs.

‘“‘ PERSONNEL” OF THE SOCIETY.

Since the last report our regrets have followed to the grave three of our col.
leagues: MM. Elie Ritter, L. A. Necker de Saussure, and Louis ‘I. I. Col-
ladon. The first, one of the most active and efficient members of the Society,
fulfilled, for sixteen years, the exacting functions of secretary. When he re-
signed that office it was not with a view to withdraw himself from the claims
of science and of our association; on the contrary, he ceased not to furnish his
regular tribute of memoirs and communications on the most varied subjects.
His treatise on the mathematical theory of music, of which I have previously
spoken, but a little preceded hia death, which occurred March 17, 1862, in the

280 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF

61st year of his age. Devoted by choice to the career of instruction, he had
been regent of the college in the department of mathematics, and was prin-
cipal of the seminary for young females since 1855. He was thus led to the
publication of elementary works, which have passed through several editions ;
but his views were always raised to the higher regions of science, and the list
of his works furnishes abundant proof that he maintained himself on no infe-
rior level in mathematics as well as astronomy and physics.

The two others whom I have named were emerite of the Society. Louis A.
Necker de Saussure, born April 10, 1786, felt the influence though he did not
enjoy the personal instructions of his distinguished grandfather, Horace-Bene-
dict de Saussure. The school of that great geologist had already evinced its
influence in the exact experiments of Theodore the uncle, and in the judicious
observations, though different in nature, of Mme. Necker de Saussure, mother
of the subject of this notice. Nor did he himself delay in giving proof of the
hereditary turn for science, his first publication, on the migration of birds, hav-
ing been prepared at the age of 19 years. Still later he communicated, for the
memoirs of our Society, a highly interesting enumeration of the birds of the
environs of Geneva, a paper tilled with well-observed facts, and attractive even
to readers unacquainted with ornithology. After completing his studies at
Edinburg, in 1807, 4 period at which he could scarcely escape the influences
of the conflict which then prevailed between the partisans of Hutton and Wer-
ner, he travelled in Scotland as far as the Hebrides, and formed a taste for the
wild scenery and hospitable society of that country which evinced its force at
a much later period of his life. On his return to Geneva, he gave to the pub-
lic in three volumes an account of his excursion to the Hebrides, which were
then but little visited, and while availing himself of the great variety of objects
to add a more popular charm to his work, fails not to give proofs of a spirit
kindred to that of the author of the Voyage dans les Alpes. In his memoir on
the Valley of Valorsine, published in 1828, which I regard as one of the best
of his works, he still occupies the same field of study and of ideas with his
celebrated ancestor, while in the later work Etudes Geologiques dans les Alpes,
(1841,) he rather attaches himself, by the nature of his observations, to the
modern school of Constant Prevost and Sir Charles Lyell. In this latter work,
which was the first of the numerous series published by our cotemporaries on
the more modern stratifications of our valley, the environs of Geneva are investi-
gated, in view of the influence of existing causes, with especial care. Sharing
the prevalent enthusiasm at the period of the Restoration, Louis Necker, for a
while, bore arms; but the tendencies subsequently developed had separated him,
since 1832, from all political affairs. In 1810 he had been appointed professor
of geology and mineralogy in the Academy of Geneva, and made his zeal par-
ticularly conspicuous in the administration of the Museum, to which, in con
junction with MM. de Candolle, Delue and Mayor, he contributed a series of
lessons in zoology, for the benefit of that rising establishment. The best of
his instructions, however, were his conversation and example, while traversing
the mountains with a company of pupils. In 1823 De Candolle and he con-
ducted an excursion for the purpose of study into the Chablais, and if the twelve
young men who had the advantage of following them did not become natural-
ists or geologists, it was assuredly not the fault of their professors. On these
occasions Necker possessed a gaiety truly inspiriting; nor were his accuracy
of vision and method of observing less noticeable. After returning from Scot-
land, he had traversed the interior of France, a part of Italy, the western and
also the eastern Alps, having made excursions of great interest into Styria and
Carniola, his explorations on the banks of Lake Leman were incessant. With
a view to the recovery of his somewhat exhausted strength, he again passed,
in 1859, into Scotland, and the equal and humid climate of that country being
found to agree with a too susceptible nervous system, led him to fix his residence

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 281

definitively in the remote island of Skye, on the western coasts of the kingdom.
This man of cultivated mind and social qualities, cherished by a large circle of
relatives and friends, deeply attached to Geneva, and after Geneva preferring
Edinburg, where he had been happy in his youth, passed the last twenty years
of his lite in a profound solitude at Portree, a small hamlet of fishermen, on an
island covered with mists and half desert! lis health and temperament ac-
commodated themselves to the situation. He still indulged his studious tastes.
He observed whatever can be observed at Skye; the barometer, the thermome-
ter, the opening of the scanty flowers, the arrival of migratory birds. Thanks
to his meteorological observations, he could foretell tempests, and the humble in-
habitants of Portree, whose lives are often exposed at sea, consulted this learned
stranger with the white beard with a respect not unmingled, we may suppose,
with sdme superstitious misgivings. Walter Scott would have certainly made
him the hero of some romance.

Necker died at Portree, November 20, 1861. He had long before presented
his collections in natural history to the Museum of Geneva, and I am now
charged, by his nephew, M. Theodore Necker, with the acceptable duty of of-
fering to this Society the notes taken during the last years of his life in Scot-
land, in order that examination may be made whether they contain anything
from which advantage may be derived to science.

The third of our number whom we have lost, Louis T. F. Colladon, was born
at Geneva, August 25, 1792. Having proceeded, after the usual preliminary
education, to Montpellier, he was there kindly received by A. Pyramus de Can-
dolle, who admitted him into a small party of special pupils, destined by the
professor to the cultivation of botany. Under this influence and instruction,
the proficiency of Colladon was evinced by the production of an esteemed mono-
graph on the genus Cassea. Having graduated in medicine, he repaired to Paris,
where his success in practice was satisfactory. ‘That he carried both zeal and
conscientiousness into his profession was shown by the courage and humanity
with which, after having already retired from practice, he devoted himself to
the care of the sick during the fearful cholera of 1832. Our colleague pub-
lished an account of a descent into the sea in a diving-bell, (1816,) and a trea-
tise, translated from the English, on deformities of the spinal column and the
means of remedy, (1826.)

Among associates at large, (associés libres,) we have to deplore the recent
loss of M. Charles Pictet, a young magistrate who would have rendered good
service to his country. A distinguished talent for design often enabled his
brother, M. Pictet de la Rive, to employ the resourees of his pencil for objects
of natural history.

The Society has recruited its ranks with two regular members, M. Alois Hum-
bert, keeper of the Museum of Natural History, and M. Miiller, author of several
works on botany. At this time we number 36 regular members, 3 emeriti, 61
honoraries, and 35 associates at large. Our sessions have been well attended ;
the collection of memoirs increases each year by half a volume; scientifie zeal
seems in nowise diminished; we can therefore, I think, felicitate ourselves on
the progress ef the Society, and with satisfaction observe its entrance upon a
new year.

ON THE CRANIA HELVETICA.

BY FREDERICK TROYON.

To the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution:

Sir: I take the earliest opportunity of acknowledging, with many thanks,
the receipt of the publications which you have been so kind as to send me on
the part of the Smithsonian Institution, namely:

Smithsonian Report, 1862.

Ancient Mining on the Shores of Lake Superior.

Dictionary of the Chinook Jargon.

Comparative Vecabulary.

Instructions relative to Ethnology and Philology.

Annual Report of the Museum of Comparative Zoélogy.

Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Nos. 69, 70.

I propose soon to send you the new edition of my work on Lacustrian habi-

tations, hoping that the copies which I offer will be accepted, not as a requital
for your favors, but as a slight testimonial of my thanks and my high esteem.

I know not whether you already possess the work which MM. Rutimeyer
and His, professors of anatomy at Basle, have recently published on the Crania
Helvetica. However this may be, I am persuaded that you will not regard as
inopportune a few observations on the subject of that interesting publication.

The authors distinguish, in reference as well to ancient as modern times,
four different types of human skulls, which they designate from the names of
the localities where the best specimens have occurred, in order not to prejudge
results or historic questions. These types are those of Sion, in the Valais; of
Hohberg, in the canton of Soleure; of Bel-Air, in the canton of Vaud; and of
Disentis, in the Grisons. The following are the figures of these four types re-
duced to the fourth of their natural size :

I.—SION TYPE.

CRANIA HELVETICA. . 283

Il.—HouHBERG TYPE.

IV.—BEL-am TYPE.

IV.—DISsENTIS TYPE.

The basis upon which these different types are founded must be sought in
the Crania Helvetica. Iwill only add that it is to the age of iron in Switzerland,
i. e., to the five or six centuries which preceded the Christian era, the Sion type
(I) is to be referred. ‘The Hohberg type (II) answers to the Roman period, or

284 . CRANIA HELVETICA.

the first four centuries of our era. The type Bel-Air (III) only makes its ap-
pearance in the tombs of the Merovingian period ; and the type Disentis, (IV,)
which is the most widely spread in the Switzerland of modern times, was like-
wise that of the age of stone in ancient Helvetia. There is a very similar type
found in the most ancient tombs of the Scandinavian countries; but according
to a late communication which I have received from Baron Von Duben, pro-
fessor at Stockholm, the Sion type also existed in Sweden in the age of stone.

A considerable number of the many skulls, whose figures are given by MM.
His and Rutimeyer, form part of my own collection, and of these I have de-
rived some very remarkable specimens from an extensive cemetery, situated at
my country seat of Bel-Air, near Lausanne, which I have been exploring for
several years. It was in this cemetery that I found the annexed skull, (V,) the
only one of its kind, and in some respects like those of the ancient Peruvians ;
but this having been already published on more than one occasion, I shall ab-
stain here from any comments in regard to it, in order to draw your attention
to an observation of a more general nature.

V.

The tombs of Bel-Air, superposed in three successive layers underground,
pertain to the period which elapsed from the fall of Rome to Charlemagne. I
haveexplored since 1838, in the canton de Vaud, a great number of cemeteries of
the same period, and notwithstanding the variety of skulls that are found of the
same epoch, I observe that the prevailing type in these sepulchres is of an
elongated form, whose anterior development is in general very slight. This ob-
servation is of interest in view of the fact that these tombs contain the remains
of the true ancestors of the present population of the canton de Vaud, and that
the general form of the skulls of this country presents, in modern times, less
posterior development anda more rounded outline—a form, therefore, more ad-
vantageous in an intellectual point of view. We have here, then, a population
in which we may remark that, notwithstanding the persistence of certain types,
civilization bas had tor its result a sensible modification of the encephalon inan
ascending scale, a direction in which progression is always much slower than in
the opposite one of degradation.

Permit me, sir, with this remark, to renew to you the expression of my most
distinguished consideration.

FRED. TROYON.
Lausanne, November 10, 1864.

EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL RESEARCHES

ON

THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY, &c.

BY J. PLATEAU, PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GHENT.

TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FROM THE MEMOIRS OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF
° BRUSSELS.

SECOND SERIES.

(CONTINUED FROM PAGE 285, SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1863.)

Application of the properties of liquid cylinders: theory of the constitution of
liquid veins emitted from circular apertures.

69. Let us now pass to the application which we have announced of most of
the foregoing facts and laws.

Let us consider a liquid vein flowing freely by the action of gravity from a
circular orifice perforating the thin wall of the horizontal bottom of a vessel.
The molecules of the liquid within the vessel, which flow from all sides towards
the orifice, as we know, still retain, immediately after their exit, directions
which are oblique to the plane of this orifice; whence there is produced a rapid
constriction of the vein, commencing at the orifice and extending as far as a
horizontal section, which has been improperly denominated the contracted sec-
tion. When the molecules have arrived at this section, which is very near the
orifice, they all tend to assume a common vertical direction, with a velocity cor-
responding to the height of the liquid in the vessel; and they are, moreover,
urged in this direction by their individual gravity. Hence, supposing the orifice
to-be circular, the vein commencing at the contracted section tends to form an
almost perfect cylinder, of any length; but this form is modified, as we now
know, by the acceleration which gravity imparts to the velocity of the liquid,
and the diameter of the vein, instead of being everywhere the same, decreases
more or less in proportion as we recede from the contracted section.

If the causes which we have detailed were alone in action, the vein would
appear simply more and more attenuated in proportion as it is considered more
distant from the contracted section, without losing either its limpidity or its
continuity. But it results from our experiments, that a liquid figure of this
kind, the form of which approximates to that of a very elongated cylinder,
must become transformed into a series of isolated spheres, the centres of which
are arranged upon the axis of the figure. In fact, we have here a liquid sub-
mitted to the action of gravity; but it is evident that during the free descent
of a liquid, gravity no longer presents any obstacle to the play of the: mole-
cular attractions, and that the latter must then exert the same configuring
actions upen the mass as if this mass were free from gravity and in a state of
rest; this is the manner in which, for instance, drops of rain, during their fall,
acquire the spherical form. But, for the preceding conclusion to be perfectly

ERRATUM.—At page 207 of the Smithsonian Report for 1863, sixth line from the bottom,
for “‘less than an,inch in a year,” read ‘‘less than an inch in a day.” Ag JE

286 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

rigorous, it would be requisite for all parts of the mass to be actuated by the
same velocity, which is not the case with the vein; we can, however, under-
stand, that, although this difference may be capable of producing some modifi-
cations in the phenomenon, it cannot prevent its production.

The liquid of the vein, therefore, during its movement must necessarily
gradually form a series of isolated spheres. But as this liquid is constantly
being renewed, the phenomenon of transformation must also continue to be
renewed. In the second place, as each portion of the liquid begins to be sub-
jected to the configuring forces as soon as it forms a part of the imperfect
cylinder which the vein tends to form, 7. e., from the moment at which it passes
the contracted section, and subsequently remains during its course under the
continued action of these forces, it is evident that each of the diviszons of the
vein must begin to be formed at the contracted section and to descend, con-
veyed by the movement of transference of the liquid, modifying itself by de-
grees so as to arrive at the state of an isolated sphere. Hence it follows that,
at any given instant, the divisions of the vein must exist in a more advanced
phase of transformation in proportion as they are considered at a greater dis-
tance from the contracted section, at least as far as that at which the transform-
ation into spheres is completely effected. From the orifice to the distance
where the separation of the masses occurs, the vein must evidently be continu-
ous; but at a greater distance, the portions of liquid which pass must be iso-
lated from each other.

If, then, the movements of the liquid, both that of translation and that of
transformation, were sufficiently slow to allow of our following them with our
eyes, the vein would appear to be formed of two distinct parts, the one superior
and continuous, the other inferior and discontinuous. The surface of the for-
mer would present a series of dilatations and constrictions, which would descend
with the liquid, becoming constantly renewed after passing the contracted sec-
tion, and which, although very feebly indicated at their origin near this section,
would become more and more marked during their movement of transference,
the dilatations becoming more prominent and the constrictions narrower: these
divisions of the vein arriving one after the other, in their greatest development,
at the lower extremity of the continuous part, would be seen to become detached
from it, and immediately to complete their assumption of the spherical form.
Moreover, the separation of each of these masses would necessarily be pre-
ceded by the formation of a line which would resolve itself into spherules of
different diameters, so that each isolated sphere would be succeeded by similar
sphertles. The discontinuous part of the vein would then be seen to con-
sist of isolated spheres of the same size and of equal spherules arranged in
the intervals of the former, both of them being conveyed by the movement of
translation, and being unceasingly renewed at the extremity of the continuous
part.

Now Savart’s beautiful investigations* have taught us that this is, in fact,
the real constitution of the vein; except that under ordinary circumstances an
extraneous cause, which was also pointed out by Savart, more or less modifies
the form of the divisions of the continuous part, and alters the sphericity of
the isolated masses composing the discontinuous part; but Savart has given
the means of excluding this influence, of which we shall speak hereafter.

70. Now as the movement of transference is too rapid to allow of the phe-
nomena which are produced in the vein being recognized by direct observation,
certain peculiar appearances ought to be the result of this. We must remember
here, that when a liquid cylinder becomes resolved into spheres, the rapidity
with which the transformation takes place is accelerated, and consequently at
the commencement is extremely small. In consequence, then, of this original
minuteness and of the velocity of the movement of transference in the vein,

* Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Aofat 1833.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 287

the effects of the gradual transformation cannot begin to become obvious until
a greater or less distance from the contracted section has been attained. Up
to this distance the rapid passage of the dilatations and constrictions before the
eye cannot give rise to any effect visible to the simple sight; so that this por-
tion of the vein will appear in the form which it would affect if it had no ten-
dency to become divided. Beyond this distance the dilatations will begin to
acquire considerable development ; the vein will appear to continue enlarging
until another distance has been attained beyond which the diameter will appear
constant. Such is, in fact, as the observations of Savart have shown, the form
presented to direct observation by a vein withdrawn from the influence of any
disturbing cause.

Lastly, we know that from the orifice to the point at which it appears to
begin to enlarge, the vein is seen to be limpid, whilst further on it appears
more or less turbid; and Savart has perfectly explained these two different
aspects, as also some other curious appearances which the troubled part pre-
sents, by attributing the limpidity of the upper portion to the slight develop-
ment of dilatations and constrictions which are propagated in it; and the tur-
bidity, as also the other appearances of the remainder of the vein, to the rapid
passage before the eye, at first of the dilatations and constrictions which have
become more marked, then, lower down, of the isolated spheres and the inter-
posed spherules. We must refer for the details to the memoir quoted above.

71. But we may go further: two consequences spring directly from our
explanation of the constitution of the vein. In the first place, as the divisions
become transformed during their descent, it is clear that the space traversed
by a division during the time it is effecting a given part of its transformation
will be as much greater as it descends more rapidly, or, in other words, as the
charge, z. e., the height of the liquid in the vessel, is more considerable ; whence
it follows clearly that, the orifice being the same, the length of the continuous
part of the vein must increase with the charge. Now this has been confirmed
by Savart’s observations. In the second place, since the transformation of a
cylinder is slower in proportion to the size of its diameter, the time which a
division of the vein will occupy in effecting any one and the same part of its
transformation will be as much longer as the vein is thicker; whence it fol-
lows, that if the rapidity of the flow does not change, the space which the
division will traverse during this time will be as much greater as the diameter
of the orifice is greater; consequently, for the same charge, the length of the
continuous part must increase with the diameter of the orifice, and this is also
verified by the observations detailed in the memoir quoted.

With regard to the laws which regulate these variations in the length of the
continuous part, Savart deduces from his observations, which were made by
employing veins of water, that for the same orifice this length is nearly pro-
portional to the square root of the charge, and that for the same charge it is
nearly in proportion to the diameter of the orifice.

_ Let us now examine whether these two laws also emanate from our explana-
tion.

72. Imagine for a moment that gravity ceases to act upon the liquid as soon
as the latter passes the contracted section. Then, commencing at this section,
the rapidity of translation will simply be that which is due to the charge, and
the value of which, as we know, is V2gh, g denoting gravity and / the charge.
This velocity will be uniform; consequently, if the vein had no tendency to
divide, it would remain exactly cylindrical throughout any extent, (§69.) Now,
all parts of the liquid being actuated by the same velocity of transference, this
common movement cannot exert any influence upon the effect of the configur-
ing actions; so that, for instance, the gradual modifications which each of the
constrictions undergoes, and the time which it takes in their accomplishment,
will be independent of the rapidity of transference.

288 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

This admitted, let us consider the infinitely thin section which constitutes
the neck of a constriction at the moment at which it quits the contracted sec-
tion. This section will descend with a constant velocity, and at the same time
its diameter will continually diminish until the constriction to which it belongs
becomes transformed into a line, and then the section in question will occupy
the middle of this line; the line will become disunited, to be converted into
spherules. As we have shown above, the time employed in the accomplish-
ment of these phenomena, and during which the liquid section we have con-
sidered has traversed the distance comprised between the contracted section
and the place which the middle of the line occupies at the precise instant of
rupture, is independent of the velocity of transference ; consequently, if the
diameter of the orifice does not change, this time will be constant, whatever
may be the charge. Now, when the movement is uniform, the space traversed
during a determinate time being in proportion to the velocity, the above dis-
tance will be in proportion to V¥2gh, consequently to Vi. As we shall fre-
quently have oceasion to make use of this distance, we shall represent it, for
the sake of brevity, by D.

Now, it is easily understood that in our vein the length of the continuous
part does not differ sensibly from the distance D. In fact, the continuous part
terminates at the exact place at which, in each line, the most elevated of the
points of rupture of the latter is produced; for at the instant at which the rup-
ture takes place, the phases of transformation of all that portion which is above
the unit in question are less advanced, (§ 69,) and therefore it still possesses
continuity, whilst all that below this point is necessarily already discontinuous.
Thus, on the one hand, the continuous part of the vem commences at the ori-
fice and terminates at the place at which the most elevated point of rupture
of each filament is produced; and, on the other hand, the distance D com-
mences at the contracted section, and terminates at the point corresponding to
the middle of the length of each of the lines at the instant. of their rupture.
The continuous part then takes its origin rather higher up, but also terminates
a little above the distance D ; the difference in the origins of these two magni-
tudes and that of their terminations must, consequently, partially compensate
each other ; and as these differences are both very minute, the excess of one
over the other will, a fortior?, be very small, so that the two magnitudes to
which they refer may, as I have stated, be regarded, without any sensible
error, as equal to each other.* In virtue of this equalicy, the length of the
continuous part of the vein which we are considering will then apparently
follow the same law as the distance D, 7. e., it will be very nearly proportional
to Vi.

Thus, in the imaginary ease of uniform velocity of transference, we again
recognize the first of the laws given by Savart. Now, it is clear that in a real
vein the velocity will deviate from uniformity so much the less as the charge
is greater; whence we may infer that, for sufficiently great charges, the length
of the continuous part of the real vein must still exactly follow this law. We
rhall, moreover, demonstrate this in a rigorous manner.

73. Let us, then, take the real case, 7. e., let us consider a vein submitted to
the action of gravity, in which, consequently, the movement of transference is
accelerated. ‘Then the velocity possessed, after any time ¢, by a horizontal
section of the liquid conveyed by the movement of transference, will have for
its value ¥2gs+-g¢, the first term representing the portion of the velocity due
to the charge, the second the portion due to the action of gravity upon the
vein, and # being reckoned from the moment at which the liquid section passes
the contracted section. It must be borne in mind that, in virtue of the accele-

* We shall recur to this point, and shall then establish it more clearly.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 289

ration of the velocity, the vein, if it did not become divided, would continue to
become indefinitely thinner from above downwards, (§ 69.)
This admitted, let us imagine that another vein of the same liquid, placed
under the imaginary condition of the preceding paragraph, flows off with the
same charge from another orifice of the same diameter, in the same time as the
true vein in question. Let @ denote the time occupied by this second vein in
traversing the distance which we have denoted by D, ¢. ¢., that which is com-
prised between the instant at which the liquid section that constitutes the neck
of a constriction passes to the contracted section, and the instant of the rupture
of the line into which this constriction becomes transformed. In the expression
of the velocity relative to the first vein, let 0, which gives for this velocity,
after the time 0, the value V2eh+g0; in other words, let us consider the ve-
locity of a liquid section belonging to the true vein, after the time necessary
for a-.section belonging to the imaginary vein to have traversed the distance D.
According to what we have seen in the preceding section, if the orifice remains
the same, this time is constant, whatever the charge may be; so that in the
above expression the term g0 remains invariable when 4 is made to vary.
Hence, whatever may be the value of 0, we may suppose the charge h to be
sufficiently large for the term 2h to be very great in proportion to the term
g, and that the latter consequently may be neglected without any sensible
error. In the case of a value of 4 which will realize this condition, and, a Sfor-
tior2, in the case of all still greater values, the velocity of a section of the true
vein during the time 0 may be regarded as constant, and equal to that of a sec-
tion of the imaginary vein ; so that throughout the entire space traversed by
the first during this time, commencing at the contracted section, the real vein,
if it did not become divided, would preserve exactly the same diameter, and
might be regarded as identical with the imaginary vein, also assumed to be free
from divisions.
Now, it necessarily follows, from this approximative identity, that during the
time 0 the same will apparently occur in like manner in both veins; conse-
quently the time @ will be very nearly that which, in the true vein, the liquid

section, corresponding to the neck of a constriction, would employ in accom-
. plishing the modifications which we have considered, and the space which it
will traverse during these modifications may be regarded as equal to the dis-
tance D relative to the imaginary vein.

Now, as the continuous part of the true vein terminates a little below this
space, and is consequently included in the same portion of the vein, it follows,
. from the above approximative identity, that this continuous part will be exactly
equal in length to that of the imaginary vein, and therefore, commencing with
the least of the charges considered above, the lengths of the continuous parts
of both veins must be very nearly governed by the same law.

We arrive then, lastly, at this conclusion, that for the same orifice, and com-
mencing, with a low but sufficient charge, the length of the continuous part of
the true vein must be in proportion to the square root of the charge.

In accordance with the preceding demonstration, the low charge in question
is that at which the movement of transference of the liquid begins to remain
apparently uniform in all that portion of the true vein which is comprised be-
tween the contracted section and the point occupied by the middle of each line
at the instant of rupture; but as the extremity of the continuous part is very
little distant from this point, (§ 72,) we may neglect the small difference, and
say simply that the low charge in question is that which begins to render the
movement of transference of the liquid exactly uniform as far as the extremity
of the continuous part of the vein.

Thus, under the condition of a low charge sufficient to produce this approxi-
mative uniformity, which condition is always realizable, the law indicated by
Savart as establishing the relation between the length of the continuous part

19s

A

290 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

and the charge necessarily follows from the properties of liquid cylinders. To
discover whether this law is also true when weaker charges are employed, we
must start from other considerations ; but it is evident, so far, that if in the lat-
ter case the law is different, it must at least necessarily converge towards the
proportionality in question, in proportion as the charge increases.

We must remark here, that in the case of a given liquid, the charge with
which the vein begins to exist under the condition which we have determined
must be as much less as the diameter of the orifice is smaller. In fact, since,
all other things being equal, the transformation of a liquid cylinder occurs with
a rapidity proportionate to the diminution in size of the diameter of the cylinder,
it follows that the value of @ will diminish with the value of the orifice; and
therefore the smaller the latter is, so much the less will the value of 2 become
to allow of the term g@ in the expression V2eh+g0, placed at the commence-
ment of this section, being neglected in comparison with the term Y2gh, and
consequently for the vein to exist under the condition in question. ;

Moreover, as the time @ varies with the nature of the liauid, the same will
necessarily apply to the charge under consideration.

74. Let us now investigate the second law, namely, that which establishes
the approximative proportion of the length of the continuous part of the vein
and the diameter of the orifice, when the charge remains the same.

Let us resume, for an instant, the imaginary case of an absolutely uniform
movement of transference. The vein, leaving its divisions out of considera-
tion, will then constitute a true cylinder commencing at the contracted section,
(§72,) which cylinder will be formed in the air, and the entire convex surface
of which will be free; moreover, as the movement of transference of the liquid
does not exert any influence upon the effect of the configuring forces, (§ 72,)
and as there is no extraneous cause tending to modify the length of the divi-
sions, the latter will necessarily assume their normal length. It is evident,
therefore, that excepting that the formation of its divisions is not simultaneous,
(§ 69,) our imaginary vein will exist under exactly the same circumstances as
the cylinders to which the laws recapitulated in section 68 refer; consequently,
if we consider in particular one of the constrictions of this vein, it must pass
through the same forms, and accomplish its modifications in the same time, as
any one of the constrictions which would result from the transformation of a
cylinder of the same diameter as the vein, formed of the same liquid, and
placed under the conditions in question.

Now, in the case of a cylinder of mercury, the time comprised between the
origin of the transformation and the instant of the rupture of the lines is, in
accordance with one of our laws, exactly or apparently in proportion to the
diameter of the cylinder; and it is clear that this law is equally applicable to
any one of the constrictions in particular, or even simply to its neck, as to the
entire figure. If, then, we suppose our imaginary vein to be formed of mercury,
the time which the neck of each of its constrictions will occupy in arriving at
the instant of the rupture of the line will be exactly or apparently in propor-
tion to the diameter which the vein would possess if the divisions in it were
not formed, z.e., to that of the contracted section. Now, as the cylindrical
form of the vein, supposed to exist without divisions, only begins at the con-
tracted section, it is only from this part that the configuring actions arising
from the instability of this cylindrical form commence. We must, therefore,
admit that the liquid section, which constitutes the neck of a constriction, does
not begin to undergo the modifications which result from the transformation
* until the instant at which it passes the contracted section; thus the interval
under consideration commences at this very instant.

But this interval, comprised between the instant at which the liquid section
of which the neck of a constriction is formed passes the contracted section,
and the instant of the rupture of the line into which this constriction becomes

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 291

converted, is that which we have designated by 0, and in which the liquid sec-
tion traverses the distance D ; in our imaginary vein of mercury, the time 0
will therefore be in proportion to the diameter of the contracted section.

Now, we know that in a liquid vein, the diameter of the contracted section
may be regarded as proportional to that of the orifice, when the latter exceeds
6 millimetres, and that above this limit the proportionality does not alter very
appreciably except when the diameter of the orifice becomes less than a milli-
metre.* Moreover, as this alteration is attributed to the influence which the
thickness of the edges of the orifice, although very slight, exerts, it is probable
that it may be rendered still less by employing, as Savart has done, orifices ex-
panded outwardly, and which may be shaped so that their edges may be very
sharp. ‘Thus, with properly made orifices, we may undoubtedly admit, with-
out appreciable error, that commencing with a diameter equal at most to a mil-
limetre, the diameter of the contracted section is proportional to that of the
orifice.

Hence, as the length of the continuous part of our imaginary vein is in pro-
portion to the diameter of the contracted section, it will also be in proportion to
the diameter of the orifice, at least starting from a low value of the latter, which
must not be much less than a millimetre.

We have only considered the case of mercury; but the principle with which
we set out, 2. ¢., the proportionality between the partial duration of the trans-
formation of a cylinder and the diameter of the latter, very probably applies

-also, as we are already aware, to all other very slightly viscid liquids; conse-
quently, in the case of any of the latter liquids, it is very probable that the
length of the continuous part of the imaginary vein will also be in proportion
to the diameter of the orifice. The law may also be true in regard to all liquids;
but it may be the case that this general application does not hold good.

If we now pass from the imaginary to the true vein, we have only to sup-
pose that the value of the constant charge is sufficiently considerable to allow
of the condition assumed in the preceding section being satisfied throughout
the entire extent which we assign to the variations in the diameter of the ori-
fice; so that, for each of the values given to this diameter, the continuous part
of the true vein is apparently of the same length as that of the corresponding
imaginary vein. The law which regulates this length may then be regarded
as the same in both kinds of veins. In aceccrdance with the two remarks ter-
minating the preceding section, it is evident that if the common charge fulfils
the condition in question with regard to the greater value assigned to the diame-
ter of the orifice, it will, a fortiori, fulfil it with regard to all the others.

We are, therefore, led to the following definitive conclusion :

In the case of mercury, and very probably also in that of all other very
slightly viscid liquids, such as water, if for the same charge increasing values
are given to the diameter of the orifice, from a value slightly less than a milli-
metre to some other determinate value, and if the common charge be sufi-
ciently great, the length of the continuous part of the vein will be proportionate
to the diameter of the orifice.

This conclusion is, perhaps, true in the case of any liquid whatsoever; but
the elements for deciding this question are wanting.

Thus, with the restrictions contained in the above enunciation, the second
law given by Savart results necessarily from the properties of liquid cylinders ;
and it is also evident that if, in the case of a common inconsiderable charge,

*Tn fact, the results obtained by Hachette show (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., t. iii, p. 78):
shat when the diameter of the orifice is equal to or greater than 10 millimetres, the mean
proportion of the diameter of the contracted section to that of the orifice is 0.78; that in pass-
ing from 10 millimetres to 1 millimetre, the proportion only increases 0.83; and lastly, when

_ the diameter is equal to 0.55 millimetre, the proportion becomes 0.88.

992 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

the law becomes modified, it must approximate towards that of Savart in pro-
portion as the value given to this charge is greater.

75. We said (note to § 72) that we should return to the closely approxima-
tive principle of equality between the length of the continuous part of an
imaginary vein and the Shae dewey distance D, in order to establish this
principle more clearly ; we shall now do this.

Let L be the length of the continuous part, and C the portion common to
this length and the distance D; let also s be the interval between the origins
of the lengths L and D, ¢. e., the small distance comprised between the orifice
and the contracted section ; and, lastly, let z be the interval between the ter-
minations of these same lengths, z e., the distance comprised between the up-
permost point of the rupture of the line and the middle of this line; we shall

then have
L=C.-+s,
D=C+z;

consequently

- L—D=s-7;

whence
ee dls 1)
D> Dovrrrreesrssst (7,

Let us now first approximatively value the quantity 7 in the case of some par;
ticular liquid, and let us again take mercury. After what was shown at the
commencement of the preceding section, the length of the divisions of an imagi-
nary vein is equal to the normal length of those of a cylinder of the same
diameter and of the same liquid which would be formed in the air, and the en-
tire convex surface of which is free; now in the case of mercury, we know
that the proportion of this normal length to the diameter of the cylinder must
be less than 4; consequently, in our imaginary vein of mercury, the proportion
of the length of the divisions to the diameter of the contracted section will
also be less than 4; but in our state of ignorance of the exact value of this
proportion, we will first suppose it to be equal to the above number. If we
then denote the diameter of the contracted section by 4, the diameter of the
isolated spheres composing the discontinuous part of the vein will be (§ 60) equal
to 1.82.4, and the length of the interval between two snecessive spheres will
be 2.18.%. But the line into which a constriction is converted is necessarily
shorter than this interval; for so long as the rupture does not take place, the
two masses united together by the filament must still be slightly elongated;
and, moreover, each of them must present a slight elongation of the line, so as
to be connected to the latter by concave curvatures. Judging from the com-
parison of the aspects presented immediately after the rupture of the line, and
after the entire completion of the phenomena, by the figure resulting from the
transformation of one of our short cylinders of oil, (see figs. 28 and 29,) I should
estimate that for each of the two masses connected by a line, the elongation
towards the latter plus the slight concave prolongation form about two-tenths
of the diameter which these masses acquire after their transition to the state of
spheres. To obtain the approximative value of the line belonging to our vein,
we must therefore deduct from the interval 2.18 .4, four-tenths of the diameter
1.82.4, which gives 1.45.4. On the other hand, if we denote the diameter of
the orifice by K, we have (note to the preceding section) very nearly K—0.8.K;
whence it follows that the appro<imate value of the length of our line is equal
to 1.45 0.8.K=1.16 K. Lastly, the uppermost point of rupture of the line
must be very near the upper extremity of the latter; if we suppose it to be at
this extremity itself, the quantity ¢ will be half the length of the line, and we
shall consequently have

i=0.58.K.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 293

Let us pass to the quantity s. We know that the distance between the orifice
and the contracted section, although not entirely independent of the charge,
always differs but little from the semi-diameter of the orifice, so that we should
have very nearly s=0.50.K, and therefore

s—?i= 0.50. K— 0.58. K——0.08.K,

evidently a very slight difference.

We have assumed 4 as the value of the proportion of the length of the divi-
sions of our vein to the diameter / ; this value is undoubtedly too great; but
as the exact value must necessarily exceed the limit of stability, which is itself
more than 3, we may admit that this exact value is considerably more than the
latter number. Suppose it, however, to be equal to this number 3; calculation
will then give for the diameter of the isolated spheres the quantity 1.65.%, and
for the interval between two consecutive spheres the quantity 1.35.4. Com-
pleting the operations with these data, in the same manner as above, we obtain
as the final result

s—7—0.23.K,
also a very slight difference.

Now, as the true value of the difference s~z must be comprised between
the two limits which we have just found, 2. e, —0.08.K and +0.23. K, and
as we cannot ascertain either the one or the other, we shall obtain a sufiicient
approximation to this true value by taking the mean of the two above limits,
which gives, lastly,

Let the distance remain D. As this is traversed by a uniform movement during
the time ? and with the velocity V2gh, we shall first have
D=0 V 2h.

Now, as the time @ is equal (preceding section) to the partial duration of the
transformation of a cylinder of the same diameter and of the same liquid as
the vein, and which would be formed under the conditions of the results
summed up in § 68, it follows, from one of the latter, that if the diameter of
the contracted section of our imaginary vein of mercury were a centimetre, the
time @ would be considerably more than 2 seconds ; however, in order to place
ourselves intentionally under unfavorable circumstances, let us suppose that, in
the above case, the time in question were only equal to 2 seconds. But the
time 7 is proportionate to the diameter of the contracted section, (preceding
section ;) if, then, we take the second as the unit of time and the centimetre
as the unit of length, we shall have for any value & of this diameter

’ ==):
and if we replace & by its approximative value 0.8 .K, it will become
0=1.6.K;

consequently
D=1°6.K V2en.
As we have taken the second and the centimetre as the units of time and length,
g will be equal to 980.9; and this value being substituted in the above expres-
sion, it will ‘finally become

‘ D=70.87 .K vi.
From this expression, and that of s—z given by the formula (2,) we deduce

3—7 0.07 f
D ~ 70.87. Va Vi

Now, according to the equation (1) this quantity represents the error we com-
mit in supposing ia 1, or Ld; it is evident that this error is independent
of the diameter of the orifice, but that it varies with the charge, and that it is

2994 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS
less in proportion as the strength of the charge is greater; it is also evident
that for it not to be very small, an extremely small value must be given to the
charge; for when the charge is too small, either the flow does not take place,
or it ensues drop by drop, in both which cases the nature of the phenomenon
is changed, and cannot be referred to the transformation of a cylinder. We
shall therefore suppose that the value of the charge is 4 centimetres, for instance,
which is certainly a small value, and which is slightly greater than the least
of the values employed by Savart in his experiments. We shall then have

S—-2

FH =0.0005 ;

and transferring this value to the equation (1) we shall find
L
—==1-+0.0005,
D ot

or rather
L—D=0.0005.D.

Thus, according to this result, whatever the diameter of the orifice may be,
with the feeble charge of 4 centimetres, the length of the continuous part of an
imaginary vein of mercury only exceeds the distance D by a quantity equal
to 6 ten-thousandths of the latter; so that, for instance, if the diameter of the
orifice were such that the distance D were a metre, the length of the continu-
ous part would only differ from it by half a millimetre; and in consequence
of the very small value we have attributed to 0, even this probably exceeds
the true difference. Lastly, if we pass from mereury to some other liquid, the
difference between L and D, or rather the proportion of this difference to D,
would necessarily vary in magnitude and direction with the nature of the
liquid; but this proportion, as we have shown, is so small that we may safely
admit that it will always be very small in regard to any other liquid.

76. Let us now go within the limit commencing with which the real vein
may be compared, in its continuous part, to the corresponding imaginary vein,
(§§ 73 and 74;) in other words, let us suppose the charge to be so inconsidera-
ble, or the diameter of the orifice to be so great, that the movement of trans-
ference, in the extent of the continuous part of the real vein, is not perfectly
uniform. he vein will also then tend to become thinner from above down-
wards, and this diminution in thickness will become visible upon the limpid
portion. The question of the laws which under these circumstances must
regulate the length of the continuous part is very complicated; we shall, how-
ever, attempt to elucidate it to a certain point.

Let us consider a division of the vein at the instant at which its upper ex-
tremity passes the contracted section. The two liquid sections between which
the division in question is comprised separate from this position with different
velocities ; for, in the short path which the inferior section has traversed, its
velocity is even slightly augmented by the action of gravity. Now, it follows
from this excess of velocity and the acceleration of the motion, that the two
sections will continue to separate from each other more and more in proportion
as they descend ; or, in other words, that the portion of the liquid included
between them will gradually become elongated during its motion of transfer-
ence. Consequently, if no other cause intervened, each of the divisions, con-
veyed by the accelerated velocity of the liquid, would gradually increase in
length up to the instant of the rupture of the line, and would preserve a con-
stant volume during its descent.

But there is a cause which acts in an opposite manner upon the. divisions.
If we imagine the divisions of the continuous part to be suddenly effaced, the
small portion of the vein thus modified which replaces, at this instant, any given
division, will be smaller in proportion as the division in question is more distant

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 295

from the contracted section. Consequently we may consider each of the di-
visions which at a determinate instant are arranged upon the entire length of the
continuous part as arising respectively from the transformation of a different
cylinder; and as the minute portion of the vein which replaces, in the above
hypothesis, any given division would continue slightly diminishing in thickness
from above downwards, we should exactly obtain the diameter of the corre-
sponding cylinder by taking the mean diameter of this portion. Now, we know
that for any liquid, the normal length of the divisions of a cylinder supposed
to be formed in the air, and the entire convex surface of which is free, is in
proportion to the diameter of this cylinder; consequently, if nothing opposed
the action of the configuring forces upon the vein, the proportion of the length
of a division to the above mean diameter corresponding to it would be the same
for all the divisions; and as this mean diameter diminishes at each division
from the top to the bottom of the continuous portion, it follows that the length
of the divisions would continue to decrease in the same proportion. If, then,
the cause with which we are engaged were alone in action, each division would
gradually diminish in length and volume in proportion as it descended in the
continuous portion. But then the divisions starting from the contracted section
with the velocity of the liquid would necessarily follow in their movement of
transference a different law. We shall show that this movement would be
retarded, so that the liquid, which descends, on the contrary, with an accelerated
velocity, must pass from one division to the other, and that the latter must
simply constitute, upon the surface of the vein, a sort of undulation, which
would be propagated according to a particular law.

Let us assume the hypothesis of the entirely free action of the configuring
forees, and let us commence with the moment at which the section of the sur-
face of the vein which constitutes the neck of a constriction passes to the con-
tracted section. After a brief interval, another superficial section, correspond-
ing to the next neck, will pass in its turn, and these two sections will include
a division between them. After another interval of time equal to the first,
another division will have passed to the contracted section; but the first will
even then be shortened, so that its lower neck, in this second interval of time,
will have traversed a less space than the first. For the same reason, the space
traversed in a third interval of time equal to the two others will be still smaller,
and so on afterwards. The movement of transference of the necks, and there-
fore that of the divisions which they include, two and two, will then consti-
tute, as I have stated, a retarded movement.

Now, the two causes which we have mentioned, and which act concurrently
upon the divisions, will necessarily combine their effects. Consequently the
velocity of transference of the divisions will be intermediate between the
accelerated velocity of the liquid and the retarded velocity which would result
from the second cause alone; in the second place, the divisions will gradually
diminish in volume during their descent along the continuous portion, but
according to a less rapid law than would be the case under the isolated action
of this second cause ; lastly, the length of the divisions will follow a law inter-
mediate between the gradual increase determined by the first cause and the
decrease produced by the second.

77. We shall now investigate the manner in which these modifications in the
volume, length, and velocity of the divisions are capable of exerting an intlu-
ence upon the laws regulating the length of the continuous portion of the vein.

We must first draw attention to the fact that in our imaginary veins, where
the movement of transference of the liquid is supposed to be uniform with all
charges, the causes producing the above modifications do not exist; conse-
quently the divisions must always descend with the same velocity as the liquid,
without varying in either volume or length in the course of the continuous
part. Moreover, we must recollect that after what has been detailed in §§ 72,

296 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

74 and 75, Savart’s laws are already satisfied with regard to these veins com-
mencing with very feeble charges; the first law in the case of any liquid
whatever, and the second in the case of mereury, very probably also in that
of any other very slightly viscid liquid, and perhaps even in that of all liquids.

Let us now recur to the true vein of the preceding section, and let us begin
by examining the influence exerted by the diminution of the volumé of its
divisions. Since a cylinder, supposed to exist under the conditions of our laws
and formed of a given liquid, becomes transformed with rapidity proportionate
to the smallness of its diameter, it necessarily follows that as the volume of its
divisions is smaller, the gradual diminution in the volume of the divisions of
the vein tends to render the velocity of their transformation more accelerated
than it would be in the imaginary vein of the same liquid if it flowed under
the same charge, and from an orifice of the same diameter. Under the isolated
influence of this modification of the volume, the time which the portion of the
phenomenon corresponding to the course of the continuous portion requires
would therefore be shorter; consequently the length of this portion would be
less than in the imaginary vein. Now if the charge under consideration were
replaced by a charge very nearly sufficient to annihilate the acceleration of the
movement of transference of the liquid in the continuous part, this portion of
the vein would then be equal in length to that of the corresponding imaginary
vein, (§73;) therefore in passing from the first charge to the second, the con-
tinuous part of the true vein would augment more than that of the imaginary
vein, 2. e., would consequently augment in greater proportion than that of the
square roots of the two charges. Thus the gradual diminution in the volume
ot the divisions tends to render the law regulating the length of the contmuous
part of the vein, when the charge is made to vary, more rapid than that of
Savart.

Let us pass on to what relates to the length of the divisions. As the accelera-
tion of the velocity of the transference of the liquid forms an obstacle to the
iree shortening of the divisions, the latter must be gradually extended in the
direction of their length, in proportion as they descend upon the continuous
part. Now this gives rise to an influence exerted in the same direction as the
preceding ; for in consequence of their less thickness, the constricted portions
will yield more readily to this traction than the dilated portions,.which will
necessarily increase the rapidity with which the former become diminished in
thickness, and will therefore tend to produce, in each of them, the formation
and rupture of the line sooner than in the corresponding imaginary vein, But
the difference of the laws which the divisions and the liquid follow in their
respective movements of transference, engenders an influence which acts ina
contrary direction to the two preceding. In virtue of the excess which the
velocity of the liquid acquires above that of the divisions, the liquid passes, as
we have seen, from one division to the other, so that any one portion traverses
successively, sometimes the narrower canal of a constriction, sometimes the
larger space of a dilatation. But ‘as the liquid thus moyes in a conduit the
dimensions of which are alternately smaller and larger, its velocity must be
greater in the constricted parts, and less in the dilated parts, than if the divi-
sions did not exist; whence this singular consequence results, that the velocity
of transference of the liquid, instead of being uniformly accelerated, is sub-
jected, in the course of the continuous part, to a series of particular variations
which render it alternately greater and less than that which a solid body fall-
ing from a point situated at the elevation of the liquid in the vessel would have.
Moreover, the liquid molecules, instead of moving in the direction of lines pre-
senting a very slight curvature, and always in the same direction, as they would
do if the divisions were absent, will necessarily describe sinuous lines .in their
passages from division to division. Now, the configuring forees emanating from

. . . =] * . .
the superficial layer of the vein, and which produce the divisions, cannot force

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 297

the molecules of the liquid to undergo these alternate changes of direction and
velocity, without expending a part of their own action; so that things will go
on as if these forces experienced a loss in intensity. If, then, the influence in
question were alone exerted, the transformation would be effected with less
rapidity, and therefore the conginuous portion would be longer than in the cor-
responding imaginary vein; whence it follows, that in passing from the charge
under consideration to a charge which would establish the approximative
uniformity of the movement of transference of the liquid in the continuous por-
tion, the length of this portion of the vein would increase in a less proportion
than that of the square roots of the two charges.

With regard to the transference of the divisions, separately considered, we
are well aware that it must be intermediate between the retarded velocity
which would result from the free shortening of these divisions and the accele-
rated velocity of the liquid; but it would be difficult to decide, @ priori,
whether this intermediate velocity preserves any retardation or whether it pre-
sents any acceleration. However, admitting that retardation exists, the latter,
tending evidently to diminish the length of the continuous portion, would pro-
duce an influence in the same direction as the above two former; and sup-
posing, on the contrary, that acceleration occurred, this would produce an influ-
ence in the same direction as the third.

78. To sum up, then: when the charges are less considerable than those
which would render the movement of transference of the liquid perfectly uni-
form in the continuous part of the vein, two opposite kinds of influences affect
the law, according to which the length of this continuous portion varies with
the charge, the first tending to make this length increase more rapidly than the
square root of the charge, whilst the second, on the contrary, teuds to make it
increase less rapidly. Now in virtue of their opposition, these two kinds of in-
fluences will mutually neutralize each other to a greater or less extent; but in
accordance with the diversity of the immediate causes which respectively pro-
duce each of these influences, complete neutralization must be regarded as very
improbable; which leads us to the former conclusion, that, when the charges
are sufficiently weak, the law in question will differ from that of Savart; but
it will be impossible to decide @ priori in what direction.

In the second place, the primary cause of all the influences which we have
mentioned being the acceleration of the movement of the liquid, it is ciear that
the resulting action of those which act in the same direction, considered sepa-
rately, decreases in proportion to the augmentation of the charge, and may be
neglected, commencing with the first of the charges under which the movement
of the liquid becomes perfectly uniform in the continuous portion. Now what
remains of the mutual neutralization of the two resulting opposed actions is
necessarily less, and probably considerably so, than each of them in particular;
whence we must believe that this excess may be neglected, commencing with
a much less charge. We then arrive at this second conclusion, that Savart’s
first law will undoubtedly begin to be true in the case of a charge which will
still leave a very marked acceleration in the movement of transference of the
liquid in the continuous portion.

Lastly, this result, in connexion with a principle which we have established
at the end of § 73, furnishes us with a third conclusion, viz., that the charge at
which the vein begins in reality to satisfy Savart’s first law will be less in pro-
portion to the size of the orifice; for it is evident that, in passing from one
orifice to the other, this charge must vary in the same manner as that at which
the acceleration of the movement of the liquid may be neglected. - But I Ey
further, that the variation in question will very probably take place in a much
greater proportion than that of the diameters of the orifices.

For, let 2’ be the charge with which the approximative uniformity of the move-
ment of transference begins in the case of a given orifice and liquid, and 6’ the

998 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

corresponding value of @. The charge #', as we have seen, should be such
that V2gh’ may be very considerable in regard to gé’, or, in other words, that

aieh!
the proportion alt may be very great. Let us now take an orifice of less
0

diameter, and let 4” denote the charge which fulfils in regard to this second
orifice the same condition as /’ with regard to the former; let, also, 6’ denote
what @ becomes in the case of the new orifice. If we wish, in the movement
of the liquid in the continuous portion of the vein which flows from the latter,
to have the same degree of uniformity as ia the continuous portion of the
preceding one, we must evidently make

V 2gh' — V2gh!'!

gé go"!
which gives
Vii or
Val ?
consequently
h! g!2
hl! oie

But the time 0, at least in the case of mercury, is proportionate to the diameter

of the contracted section, consequently to that of the orifice, (¢ 74;) hence, in
12

the case of this liquid, we may substitute for ny that of the squares of the

diameters of the two orifices; whence it follows that, in passing from any deter-
minate orifice to one which is less, the charge under consideration will decrease
as the square of the diameter of the orifice. Now it must be considered as
very probable that the weakest charge at which Savart’s law begins to be
realized will decrease in an analogous manner, 2. e., in a much greater propor-
tion than that of the diameters. As we have several times stated, we are not
aware whether the considerations relative to mercury are applicable or not to
all other liquids; but we know at least that they are very probably so to all
those the viscosity of which is very slight; consequently the above conclusion
is very probably also true in regard to any of the latter liquids—such, for
instance, as water.

79. Let us provisionally admit the preceding conclusions as perfectly demon-
strated, and let us pass to the other law, ¢. e., that which governs the length
of the continuous portion when the diameter of the orifice is made to vary. I
say, in the first place, that, in the case of mercury, this law will coincide with
the second of those of Savart, when we give to the common charge the value
at which the vein escaping from the largest of the orifices employed would
begin in reality to satisfy the first of these laws. In fact, let us remark, first,
that with the charge in question, aad which we shall denote by 4, the veins
escaping from all the lesser orifices will exist a fortiori in the effective con-
ditions of the first law. Consequently, if for a moment we substitute for this
charge h, a sufficiently considerable charge to render the velocity of the liquid
sensibly uniform throughout all the continuous parts, and if we again pass from
this second charge to the preceding, the respective lengths of the continuous
parts will all decrease in the same proportion, 2. e., in that of the square roots
of the two charges. Now, with the largest of the latter, the lengths in ques-
tion were to each other as the diameters of the corresponding orifices, (§ 74;)
it will also be the same with the charge 4,; consequently with this charge the
second of Savart’s laws will be satisfied.

In the second place, [ say that with a lower charge than 2; the same will
not hold good. ‘To show this, let h, be this new charge; and let us denote by

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 299

hz the charge which plays the same part with regard to the vein escaping from
the smallest orifice as that which f, plays with regard to that which escapes
from the larger one. It must be borne in mind that 3 is less than h,, and let
us suppose 22 to be comprised between the two latter. With the charges /,
and fz the vein escaping from the smallest orifice will therefore then still exist
under the effective conditions of Savart’s first law, whilst, as regards the vein
which escapes from the larger orifice, these conditions will only commence at
h,; if, then, we pass from /, to hy, the continuous portion of the first vein will
decrease in proportion to the square roots of these two charges; but that of the
latter vein will decrease in a different proportion. Now, with the charge hy
these two lengths were to each other as the diameters of the corresponding
orifices; with the charge h2, then, they would exist in another proportion; con-
sequently the second law of Savart would no longer be satisfied, at least as
regards the two extreme veins of the series brought into comparison.

The following new conclusions result from all this: With a sufficiently weak
common charge, the proportionality of the length of the continuous portion of
the mercurial column to the diameter of the orifice does not exist throughout
the entire extent assigned to the Variations of this diameter; but it begins to
manifest itself when that value is given to the common charge at which the
vein escaping from the largest of the orifices commences to exist under the
effective conditions of Savart’s first law.

Respecting these conclusions, we must repeat what we stated with regard to
that terminating the preceding section, viz: that they are very probably appli-
cable, at least to all very slightly viscid liquids, consequently to water.

Now, we shall see that these same conclusions, as also those of the pre-
ceding section, are in accordance with the results of Savart’s experiments,
which results relate to water.

80. Savart has made two series of observations upon veins of water with-
drawn from all extraneous influences, one with an orifice 6 millimetres, the
other with an orifice 3 millimetres in diameter; the successive charges were
the same in both series. The two following tables represent the results ob-
tained, 2. e., the lengths of the continuous part corresponding to the successive
charges ; both the lengths and the charges are expressed in centimetres. I
have inserted in each table a third column, containing, in regard to each of the
lengths of the continuous part, the proportion of the latter to the square root
of the corresponding charge :

Diameter of the orifice, 6 millimetres. Diameter of the orifice, 3 millimetres.
Charges. Length of the con- | Proportion to the Charges, Length ofthecon-| Proportion to the
tinuous portion, square root of tinuous portion. square root of
the charge. the charge.
4.5 107 50.4 4,5 24 11.3
12 126 36. 4 12 39 11.3
27 143 27.9 27 58 11.2
47 158 23. 0 47 78 11.4

Before discussing these tables, we may remark here that all the lengths of
the continuous portions are expressed in whole numbers; which shows that
Savart has taken for each of them the nearest approximative whole number in
centimetres, disregarding the fraction ; hence it follows that the lengths given
in these tables cannot, in general, be perfectly exact.

300 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

This bemg established, let us now begin by examining the table relating to
the orifice of 6 millimetres. It is evident that the proportion of the length of
the continuous portion to the square root of the charge diminishes considerably
from the first charge to the last; whence it follows that, in the case of a vein
of water escaping from an orifice 6 millimetres in diameter, if the charge be
not made to exceed 47 centimetres, Savart’s first law is far from being satisfied.
Thus the first conclusion of § 78 is conformable with experiment. Moreover,
the diminution of the proportion determines the direction in which the true law
differs from that of Savart within the limit at which this begins to be sufli-
ciently approximative ; it is evident that the length of the continuous portion
then augments less rapidly than the square root of the charge. In the second
place, as the proportion in question increases, we find that the latter converges
towards a certain limit, which must be a little less than 23, 2. e., the value cor-
responding to the charge of 47 centimetres. In fact, whilst the charge receives
successive augmentations of 7.5, 15 and 20 centimetres, the proportion dimin-
ishes successively by 14, 8.9 and 4.5 units, and the latter difference is still
tolerably slight in regard to the value of the latter proportion; whence we
may presume that, if the charge were still farther increased, the further dimi-
nution of the proportion would be very small, and that a sensibly constant
limit would soon be attained, at which limit Savart’s first law would be
satisfied.

Let us now find the proportion of the velocity of transference of the liquid
at the extremity of the continuous part to that at the contracted section, in the
case of the vein escaping under a charge of 47 centimetres. We shall disregard
here the small alternate variations which have been treated of in § 77, and shall
therefore consider the velocity of transference of a horizontal section of the
liquid of the vein as being also that which this section would have if it had
fallen freely and in a state of isolation from the height of the level of the liquid
in the vessel. Then, on neglecting the small interval comprised between the
orifice and the contracted section, we shall have for the velocity in question,

at any distance Z of this section, the value Y2g.(4+/); if, then, 7 denotes the
length of the continuous portion, the proportion of the velocity at the end of
this length to that at the contracted section will be expressed generally by

2
BEAM more simply by af

V 2h

sion for 2 and / the value relative to the vein in question, 7. e., 47 and 158, we
find for the relation between the extreme velocities the value 2.1. Thus, al-
though, under a charge of 47 centimetres, the vein escaping from an orifice of
6 millimetres may probably nearly exist under the effective conditions of Savart’s
first law, the velocity at the end of the continuous portion is even more than
double the velocity at the contracted section, so that the movement of transfer-
ence of the liquid is still more considerably accelerated. The second conclusion
of § 78, therefore, appears so far to agree, like the first, with the results of ex-
periments. :

Let us pass to the table relating to the orifice of 3 millimetres. Here it is
evident that the proportion of the length of the continuous portion to the
square root of the charge is very nearly the same for all the charges; whence
it follows that, with this orifice, the vein already begins to come within the
effective conditions of Savart’s first law under a charge of 4.5 centimetres.
But, according to what we have stated, the orifice being 6 millimetres, the vein
does not satisfy these conditions except under a charge at least equal to 47
centimetres; the charge at which Savart’s first law begins to be realized, then,
augments and diminishes with the diameter of the orifice, and much more
se than this diameter. Now, this is the substance of the conclusion
of § 78.

h

l Pe ON
as . On now substituting in this expres-
7

;

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 301

Lastly, if, in the general expression of the relation of the extreme velocities
found above, we replace / and 7 by the values 4.5 and 24 relative to the first
vein of the table under consideration, we shall find for this relation the value
2.5; which shows that with the charge 4.5, under which the vein is already
placed in the effective conditions of Savart’s law, the velocity of transference
of the liquid is still very notably accelerated. No doubt ean, therefore, remain
of the legitimacy of the second conclusion of § 78.

Let us now caleulate, for each of the four charges, the proportion of the
lengths of the continuous parts corresponding respectively to the two orifices;
we shall thus form the following table :

Charges. Proportions.
1 eRe alae aah te a5 Bic sae ac MEN ai Pe Poke ie Pn ca tt SR 4.46
Ly iva: sacle adhe ttt meeting fen en goblets eM alte bli title ol ya ile 3.23
BIL cake, Spt eyeblink tae ate Reman Me Beg aap Sy 2.46
22 AS SSIS ES Ssh patie Nighi ed dg le i RII RS SL ph ale i

This table shows, that for charges below 47 centimetres the relation between
the respective lengths of the continuous portions of two veins of water escap-
ing, one from an orifice 6 millimetres in diameter, and the other from an orifice
of half this diameter, is far from being the same as those of the diameters;
whence it follows that, under these charges, Savart’s second law is not satisfied.
But it is evident, at the same time, that this relation converges towards that of
the diameters in proportion as the charge is augmented, and that, under the
charge of 47 centimetres, it nearly attains it; now, according to what we have
seen above, under this same charge of 47 centimetres, the vein escaping from
the larger of the two orifices very probably nearly attains the effective con-
ditions of Savart’s first law. The conclusions of the preceding section appear
then to agree, as those of § 78, with the results of observation. We shall now,
however, see this agreement confirmed by the results obtained with veins of
water when not withdrawn from extraneous influences.

81. These extraneous influences, which consist of certain more or less regu-
lar vibratory movements transmitted to the veins, do not appear to alter the
laws under consideration, considered generally ; but they produce a curtailment
of the continuous portions, and thus produce the same effect as a diminution
of the diameters of the orifices, so that under their influence Savart’s laws be-
gin to be realized with weaker charges.

I have just stated that the complete laws which govern the continuous por-
tion do not appear to be changed by the extraneous influences in question;
this will be readily seen when, for each of the series made by Savart under the
influence of these actions, in which series the orifices, the charges, and the
liquid are the same as before, we construct a table of the proportions of the
length of the continuous part and the square root of the charge. Notwithstand-
ing the slight differences arising, on the one hand, from the irregularities inherent
to the extraneous influences, and, on the other hand, from Savart always having
given the lengths in whole numbers, we shall see that with an orifice of 6 mil-
limetres the proportion still begins to diminish, and converge towards a certain
limit; only here the limit is less, for the reason I have given above, and the
limit appears to be attained under a less charge than 47 centimetres; 2d, that
with an orifice of 3 millimetres the proportion is perfectly constant.

Hence the series in question may also serve fcr the discussion of the laws
which govern the length of the continuous part. I shall limit myself here to
the production of two of these series; they consist of those which Savart
adopted as his type, and from which he deduced his laws. The following are
the tables centaining them :

302 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

ad

Diameter of the orifice, 6 millimetres. | Diameter of the orifice, 3 millimetres.

1 Saat Te ce 1
Charges. Length of the con- | Proportion to the Charges. Lengthofthecon-| Proportion to the
tinuous portion. square root of tinuous portion. square root of
the charge. | the charge,
4.5 40 18.9 4.5 16 7.9
12 59 17.0 12 25 tee,
27 82 15.8 27 Al 78
47 112 16.3 47 5d 8.0

and the first shows that, with an orifice of 6 millimetres, the proportion of the
length of the continuous portion to the square root of the charge appears to
have attained its limit even with a charge of 27 centimetres; the slight in-
crease manifested in the case of the succeeding charge is undoubtedly due to
the causes of irregularity which I have mentioned.

Let us further calculate, for these two series, the proportions of the lengths
corresponding respectively to the two orifices, which gives us the following
table:

Charges. Proportions,
Ais atere «| ciao dete ein Shsinla mieia acbible ys sles crgte SOS GGO. UL Sa 2.50
WD ipereswts ah) siete els fl SSPE a teielh Paha eI, farciths «me ye teevatalel ars 2.36
2d pin bial e SIRS eae) s a Hladalm =: 3,22 a Wary TSE RIEL iis i PSI ORS SS 2.00
Arle, (isiats< ah F sia ofetstje HOSE 2-GE ERIGD, AL DOC Saat ht cee tere 2.04

Tt is, therefore, also under the charge of 27 centimetres that the proportion of
the lengths of the continuous portions attains that of the diameters of the
orifices, which completes the establishment of the conformity of the conelu-
sions of § 79 to the results of observation.

Lastly, with an orifice of 3 millimetres, Savart has made a series of obser-
vations corresponding to four larger charges than the preceding, and the pro-
portion of the length of the continuous portion to the square root of the charge
still appeared pertectly constant; the first of these new charges was 451, and
the last 459 centimetres.

82. Thus, as we have been taught by Savart’s investigations, the vein gives
rise to the production of a continuous sound, principally arising from the peri-
odical shock of the isolated masses of which the discontinuous portion is com-
posed against the body upon which they fall, and this sound may be made to
acquire great intensity by receiving the discontinuous portion upon a tense
membrane. On comparing the sounds thus produced by veins of water under
different charges and with orifices of different diameters, Savart found that, for
the same orifice, the number of vibrations made in a given time is proportionate
to the square root of the charge; and that for the same charge, this number is
in inverse proportion to the diameter of the orifice. We shall now see that
these two laws also result from our principles.

Let us again have recourse to imaginary veins. In these the length of the
divisions is equal, as we have seen, (§74,) to the normal length of those of a
cylinder of the same liquid, formed under the conditions of our laws, and hay-
ing for its diameter that of the contracted section of the vein; thus this length
depends only upon the diameter of the orifice and the nature of the liquid, and
does not vary with the velocity of the flow. Now it follows from this, that for
the same liquid and the same orifice the number of divisions which pass in a
given time to the contracted section is in proportion to this velocity, 2. e., to
V2ch, consequently to Vhs. But each of these divisions furnishes lower down
an isolated mass, and each of these subsequently strikes the membrane; the

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 303

number of impulses produced in a given time is equal then to that of the divi-
sions which pass in the same time to the contracted section, and is consequently
proportionate to the square root of the charge.

In the second place, as the normal length of the divisions of a cylinder, sup-
posed to exist under the conditions of our laws and composed of a given liquid,
is proportionate to the diameter of this cylinder, it follows that, for any liquid,
the length of the divisions of the imaginary vein is proportionate to the diame-
ter of the contracted section, and therefore exactly proportionate to that of the
orifice. Now, for a given velocity of escape, the number of divisions which
pass in a given time to the contracted section is evidently in inverse ratio to
the length of these divisions; if, then, the liquid remains the same, this number
is exactly in inverse ratio to the diameter of the orifice.

Thus the two laws which, according to Savart, regulate the sounds produced
by the veins, would necessarily be satisfied with regard to our imaginary
veins. Now, I say that the sound produced by a true vein will not differ from
that which the corresponding imaginary vein would produce, if the charge is
sufficient relatively to the diameter of the orifice for the velocity of transfer-
ence of the liquid to augment very slightly from the contracted section to a
distance equal to the length of the divisions of the imaginary vein. Then, in
fact, within this extent, the two causes which tend to modify the length of the
divisions, (§ 76,) z.e., the acceleration of the velocity of the liquid and the
resulting diminution in the diameter of the vein, will both be very small; and
as they act in opposite directions, their resulting action will be insensible, so
that the divisions will freely acquire at their origin the length corresponding
to that of the corresponding imaginary vein. Now, it is clear that in this case
the number of divisions which will pass in a given time to the contracted sec-
tion will be the same in the real and the imaginary vein; consequently the
sounds produced by both the veins will also be identical.

But in confining ourselves to very slightly viscid liquids, as water, we know
that the relation between the normal length of the divisions of a cylinder
imagined to exist under the conditions of our laws and the diameter of this
cylinder must very probably differ but little from 4; consequently the same
applies to the relation between the length of the divisions of an imaginary
vein formed of one of these liquids and the diameter of the contracted section
of this vein. If, then, ina true vein formed of one of these liquids the in-
crease in the velocity of transference is very slight at a distance from the con-
tracted section equal to 4 times the diameter of this section, the condition laid
down above will very probably be satisfied: however, to avoid any chance of
being deceived, we will take, for instance, 6 times this diameter.

It is, moreover, clear that, if the condition thus rendered precise is fulfilled
with regard to a given charge and orifice, it will be so, a fortiori, for the same
orifice and greater charges, and for the same charge and smaller orifices. We
arrive, then, at the following conclusions:

1. When a series of veins, formed of a very slightly viscid liquid, flow suc-
cessively from the same orifice and under different charges, if the least of them
is sufficient for the velocity of transference of the liquid to augment very
slightly, as far as a distance from the contracted section equal to about 6
times the diameter of this section, the number of vibrations corresponding re-
spectively to the sounds produced by each of the veins of the series will neces-
sarily satisfy the first of the two laws discovered by Savart.

2. When a series of veins, formed of a very slightly viscid liquid, escapes
under a common charge and from orifices of different diameters, if the common
charge is sufficient for the same condition to be fulfilled with regard to the vein
which escapes from the larger orifice, the number of vibrations corresponding
respectively to the sounds produced by each of the veins of the series will
necessarily satisfy the second law. It now remains for us to show that the

304 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

above condition was satisfied in the ‘experiments from which Savart deduced
the two laws under consideration.

In the series relating to the first of these laws, the diameter of the common
orifice was 3 millimetres, and the smallest charge was 51 centimetres ; and in
the series which refers to the second law, the value of the common charge was
the same, 51 centimetres, and the diameter of the largest orifice was 6 milli-
metres. For our condition to be fulfilled with regard to both series, it was
therefore evidently sufficient that it was so in the vein which escaped under the
charge of 51 centimetres, and from the orifice the diameter of which was 6 milli-
metres. Now on multiplying this diameter by 0.8, we obtain for the approx-
imative value of that of the contracted section of the vein in question 4.8 milli-
metres, and 6 times the latter quantity gives us 28.8 millimetres, or nearly

3 centimetres. Now if in the expression ee which gives the general value
‘

of the relative proportions of the velocities of transference at a distance 7 from
the contracted section and at this section, (§ 80,) we make A=51 and /—=3, we
obtain for this proportion the value 1.03; whence it is evident, that from the
contracted section to a distance equal to about 6 times the diameter of this
section, the velocity of transference of the liquid of the vein in question only
increased 3 centimetres more than its original value.

83. Let us imagine a vein of water, and let us call a division considered im-
mediately after its passage to the contracted section, 2. e., at the instant at which
its upper extremity passes this section, the nascent division. It follows from
what we have detailed in the preceding section, starting with a sufficient charge,
that the proportion of the length of the nascent divisions of the vein in ques-
tion to the diameter of the contracted section will assume a constant value, z.e.,
independent of the charge, and that this value will very probably differ but
little from 4.

Now the results obtained by Savart in the experiments relative to the laws
which we have just discussed allow us, as we shall see presently, to verify the
consequences of our principles.

The two opposite causes which tend to modify the length of the divisions
are also those which exert an influence upon the velocity of transference, or,
more precisely, upon the velocity of the transference of the necks which termi-
nate them, (§ 76.) Now, in the case under consideration, these same causes
both remaining very small throughout the extent corresponding to a nascent
division, their resulting action upon the velocity of transference of the necks
will be insensible throughout this extent; consequently the velocity with
which a neck descends may be regarded as exactly unitorm and equal to the -

velocity of the flow, ¥2gh, from the contracted section to a distance equal to
the length of a nascent division.

If, then, for an orifice of a given diameter, 4 denotes the length of a nascent
division, and ¢ the time oceupied by a neck to traverse it, we shall have

A=t V2gh.
Moreover, let x represent the number of divisions which pass to the contracted

section in a second of time; as the time ¢ evidently measures the duration of
the passage of one of them, we shall have, taking the second as the unit of

, il! | Ee Se a
time, (iz and therefore —- V2gh. Lastly, let k denote the diameter of

the contracted section corresponding to the same orifice; to represent the pro-
portion of the length of the nascent division to this diameter, we shall have
the formula

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 305

Now, to obtain, by means of this formula,*the numerical value of the propor-

aE: : : : :
tion = relative to a determined charge and orifice, we have only to ascertain,

k
by experiment, the number of vibrations per second corresponding to this
charge and this orifice; for then the value of 4 will be given, that of & may
be deduced from the diameter of the orifice employed; we shall find that of x
by taking (see preceding section) half the number of vibrations found; and,
lastly, that of g is known. It is unnecessary to remark that the values of h,
k, and g must be reduced to the same unit of length. Now, Savart’s observa-
tions relative to the first law give us, for an orifice of 3 millimetres, the num-
ber of vibrations per second corresponding respectively to four different charges ;
we can calculate then, for each of these observations, the value of the propor-
tion
The following table contains these numbers, with the charges to which they
refer. The latter are expressed in centimetres:

Diameter of the orifice, 3 millimetres.

Charges. Number of vibrations.
Stee nS Lele a olalais-a aaa rie Subecyareuato amie tehoyl & GAStite Senta sapere entre 600
WR erstet. Me tiotele sitar eee nel ton Ae Ly sieroreje. areta eisietia 853
Mp mrs seit eis ae stt Hef S oa ois GS Ge Mensa (ee SARL Lie Se aldne Seles 1,024
Ee OCTET Pa Srey Pie 2 EU ENS peer eepyen Beek 1,843

We may conclude, from the results detailed in the note to § 74, that when
the diameter of the orifice amounts to 3 millimetres, that of the contracted
section is almost exactly eight-tenths of this quantity; consequently, if we re-
tain the centimetre as the unit of length, which gives 0.3 for the value of the
diameter of the orifice in question, we shall have

E05 «0:0 0.24,

Lastly, the numbers of vibrations, and therefore the values of n, supposing
the second taken as the Unit of time, and the values of 2 and & being reduced
to the centimetre as the unit of length, we must make g—980.9.

Substituting in the formula (a) these values of & and g, as also those of h
taken from the above table, and those of ” obtained by taking the respective
halves of the numbers of vibrations contained in the same table, we shall find,

Aine :
for the proportion 7 the four following numbers:

4.39
4.37
4.46
4.29

and we see that, in fact, these numbers closely approximate to each other, and
very nearly amount to 4. The mean of these numbers, 7. e., 4.38, gives us
then, very nearly, the constant value which, commencing with a suitable charge,
the proportion of the length of the nascent divisions of a vein of water to the
diameter of the contracted section of this vein assumes.

This is also evidently the value of the proportion of the length of all the
divisions of the continuous portion of a vein of water to the diameter of the
contracted section, when the charges are sufficiently considerable for the move-
ment of transference of the liquid to be perfectly uniform throughout the
whole extent of this contiauous portion. In experimentally determining, in

20 8

306 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

the case of any other liquid, the nufaber of vibrations corresponding to a given
charge and orifice, the value of ; referring to this liquid is also obtained by
means of the formula (a.) If we confine ourselves to liquids, the viscosity
of which is very slight, the values would very probably be found to differ but
little from the preceding; and it may consequently be considered that, with
the same charge and the same orifice, the sounds produced by the veins formed
respectively of these various liquids are very nearly of the same pitch; but
the case would undoubtedly be different, at least in general, if we passed to
liquids of considerable viscosity.

Savart says that the nature of the liquid appears to exert no influence upon
the number of vibrations corresponding to a given charge and orifice; but he
does not point out what the liquids were which he compared in this respect ;
from what we have stated, it may be presumed that these liquids were some of
those the viscosity of which is very slight.

84. Since the partial duration of the transformation of a cylinder may evi-
dently be taken into account, as we have already remarked, by considering
only one of the constrictions of the figure, or simply the neck ‘of the latter,
and, on the other hand, as this duration varies, for the same diameter, with the
nature of the liquid, it follows that in the vein the time comprised between the
instant at which the superficial section, which constitutes the neck of a con-
striction, passes to the contracted section, and the instant of the rupture of the
lixe into which this constriction is gouverted, will also vary, all other things
being equal, with the nature of the liquid. Now, it necessarily follows from
this, that for the same charge and the same orifice the length of the continuous
part of the vein will vary according to the nature of the liquid; and this con-
clusion is also in conformity with the results of experiment. In fact, as is well
known, Savart has measured the continuous portion of four veins flowing un-
der identical circumstances, and formed respectively of sulphuric ether, alco-
hol, water, and-a solution of caustic ammonia, and he found the following

lengths:
1 DH os gee tees ears eerie SNe Pe los SOR el es Se ee as ay 90
PAN CONG ngern cero cS ok ae See eee Oe eee eee eee 85
WW ater ii cpcte (ole! o ter bre Guebes o eroas She rete tare TeLe Re Peeters eater eaten 70
SAOMINOMTAS SSS wees Saw austin ee open ee eere tee attee eon eee 46

85. Hitherto we have only entered upon the consideration of veins projected
vertically from above downwards. Let us now consider veins projected in other
than vertical directions. ‘These are incurved by the action of gravity, and can-
not, therefore, be any further compared to cylinders; but we must remark, that
the phenomenon of the conversion into isolated spheres is not the result of a
property belonging exclusively to the cylindrical form; it appears that this
phenomenon must be produced in the case of every liquid figure, one dimen-
sion of which is considerable with regard to the two others; we have, in faet,
seen the liquid ring formed in the experiment described in § 19 become con-
verted into a series of small isolated masses, which would constitute so many
spheres if their form were not slightly modified by the action of the metallic
wire which traverses them. We can understand, then, that in curved veins
divisions passing gradually to the state of isolated spheres ought also to be
produced; consequently, the constitution of veins projected either horizontally
or obliquely must be analogous to that of veins projected vertically from above
downwards, which conclusion agrees, in fact, with Savart’s observations.

This analogy of constitution must evidently extend to the ascending por-
tion of the veins projected vertically from below upwards; only in the case of
ne oe veins the phenomena are disturbed by the liquid which is thrown

@ back.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 307

86. The properties of those liquid figures, one dimension of which is con-
siderable with regard to the two others, and particularly of cylinders, furnishes
then the complete explanation of the constitution of liquid veins projected
from circular orifices, and accounts for all the details and all the laws of the
phenomenon, at least so long as the modifications produced in it by extraneous
causes, 2. ¢., by the vibratory movements transmitted to the liquid, are excluded.

As regards the mode of action of these vibratory movements, it is evident
that the properties of the liquid cylinders cannot make us acquainted with
them. These movements constitute a totally different cause from the con-
figuring forces, consequently one which is foreign to the general object of our
treatise ; however, to avoid leaving a deficiency in the theory, we will also
examine, relying upon other considerations, the manner in which the vibratory
movements act upon the vein, and we shall thus arrive at the complete ex-
planation of the modifications which result from it, and the constitution of the
latter ; but we shall reserve this subject for the following series.

The influence exerted by the vibratory movements communicated to the
liquid led Savart to regard the constitution of the vein as being itself the
result of certain vibratory movements inherent in the phenomenon of the flow.
From this assumption, Savart has endeavored to explain how the kind of dis~
turbance occasioned in the mass of the liquid by the emission of the latter
might in reality give rise to vibration, and he has shown that the existence of
the latter would entail the alternate formation of dilatations and constrictions
in the vein. It has been shown, in the exposition of our theory, that the con~
stitution of the vein is explained in a necessary manner by facts, quite inde-
pendently of all hypothesis. We may then, | think, dispense with a detailed
discussion of the ingenious ideas which we have mentioned, ideas for the com-
plete comprehension of which we must refer to Savart’s memoir itself. We
shall merely remark, that it is difficult to admit the kind of disturbance sup-
posed by Savart to occur, except during the first moments after the orifice is.
opened; moreover, that it is not very evident how the vibrations in question,,
after having traced upon the surface of the vein a nascent division, would pro~
duce the further development of the latter, so as to make it pass gradually,,
during its descent, to the state of an isolated mass; lastly, that to remove
these difficulties, we should again be obliged to have recourse to additional
hypotheses, to arrive at the laws governing the length of the continuous por-.
tion, and those to which the numbers of vibrations corresponding to the sounds.
produced by the shock of the disturbed portion are subject. However, it is
by borrowing one of Savart’s ideas, which becomes applicable when, from.
some external cause, vibrations are really excited in the liquid, that we find.
the elements requisite for entering upon the latter part of the theory.

87. In the next series, after having concluded what relates to the vein, we:
shall return to the liquid masses free from gravity; and we shall study the.
other figures of revolution besides the sphere and the cylinder, as also those
figures which do not belong to this class, for which the equation of equilibrium,
may be interpreted in a rigorous manner.

803 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

THIRD SERIES.

Theory of the modifications which liquid veins, projected from circular orifices,
undergo under the influence of vibratory movements.

§ 1. In the preceding series we deduced from the properties of our liquide
figures the theoretical explanation of the constitution of liquid veins projected
from circular orifices and withdrawn from all disturbing influence; it now
remains to consider, also, under a theoretical, point of view, the curious phe-
nomena which are produced when vibratory movements are communicated to
the liquid. Commencing our investigation, as has been already stated, with an
idea announced by Savart, we shall show how these movements combine their
effects with those of the configurative forces which determine the gradual
transformation into isolated masses, and thenceforth all the phenomena in ques-
tion will be explained in a natural manner.

After aiming to establish, by help of an ingenious theory, that the disturb-
ance occasioned in the mass of the liquid of the vessel by the efflux itself may
excite in that mass vibrations directed perpendicularly to the plane of the
orifice, Savart has shown that similar vibrations would result in the formation
of alternate dilatations and constrictions on the surface of the vein, because
the portion of the latter which would issue during the continuance of a vibra-
tion, directed from within outwards, would undergo a compression which would
increase its thickness, while the portion which issued during the continuance
of a vibration directed from without inwards would undergo, on the contrary,
a contraction which would attenuate it. Now, as our researches have shown,
the formation of dilatations and constrictions of the vein is due to quite another
cause than vibratory movements, namely, to the instability of the equilibrium
of figure; but when vibratory movements are transmitted from the exterior to
the liquid of the vessel, and exist, consequently, in reality in that liquid, when,
for instance, we place in communication with the walls of the vessel a sonorous
instrument in vibration, then the movements in question must necessarily tend
to exert on the vein the action supposed by Savart; and if these movements
are suitably periodical, their action will evidently concur with those of the
configurative forces. We shall presently examine this more closely; but we
must first return to a point. of the theory which we have stated in regard to
veins not submitted to that influence.

§ 2. As was seen (2d series, §§ 72, 74, and 82) when the flow takes place
in the direction of the descending vertical, if we imagine the movement of
translation of the liquid to be exactly uniform, the laws of the transformations
of cylinders apply clearly to the vein, aud we thence easily deduce the laws
indicated by Savart, laws which control, we know, the length of the contin-
uous part and the sound rendered by the impact of the djscontinuous part
against a stretched membrane. But this case of uniformity in the movement
of translation cannot be realized; we can only approximate to it by augment-
ing the discharge, (Idid., §§ 72 and 73,) and, in the whole length of the con-
tinuous part, the movement of translation is always more or less accelerated ;
whence it necessarily results that, in the absence of configurative forces, the
vein would continue to grow narrower indefinitely from above downwards.
Hence, the liquid figure being no longer exactly cylindrical, the laws of the
transformation of cylinders could be no longer applicable to it without some
modification ; and since the volume of the divisions* of a cylinder is propor-

* Tt will be remembered tl. 1t we designate as divisions of a liquid cylinder the portions
of that cylinder each of which is converted into an isolated sphere, and that, during the
transformation, all the divisions are limited by the cireles of the neck (cercles de gorge) of
the constrictions.

re BE ne

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 309

tionably less as the diameter of the cylinder is smaller, it would scem that the
divisions of the vein must undergo, during their descent, 1 gradual diminution
of volume in a certain ratio with the above attenuation. Now, notwithstanding
the apparent legitimacy of the inference, this was nothing more than an hy-
pothesis, and it was improperly presented as the expression of the reality. In
effect, it led, in the first place, to a consequence difficult to be admitted, namely,
(Ibid., §§ 76 and 77,) that the liquid descends more rapidly than the divisions,
and that, moving thus in a sort of channel of dimensions alternately wider and
narrower, its velocity would undergo a succession of periodical variations ;
moreover, if the divisions lost something of their volume in the transit of the
continuous part, it would follow that the volume of each isolated mass would
be less than that of an incipient division, and as the same quantity of liquid
must necessarily pass, within the same time, at all distances from the orifice,
the number of masses which would strike per sécond upon a stretched mem-
brane would be greater than that of the divisions which would commence per
second at the contracted section, a result irreconcilable, as will presently
appear, with our theory of the influence of vibratory movements on the vein.

But another hypothesis may be formed equally probable, @ priori, which
does not involve the difficulties just mentioned, and which, as we shail see, is
sustained by the results of experiment. Instead of regarding each division as
independent of those adjacent, and as thus freely and gradually diminishing in
volume by reason of the progressive slendervess of the vein, so that all those
which, at a given instant, are ranged along the continuous part shall have
volumes decreasing from the upper to the lower, it may be assumed with equal
probability that these divisions are reciprocally dependent (solidaires) as re-
gards one another, and that, in virtue of this reciprocal dependence, (solidarité, )
they must all have an equal volume, but that, in consequence of the attenua-
tion of the vein, this uniform volume is intermediate between those which
would correspond separately to the two extééme divisions ; this volume would,
therefore, be proportionably less as the vein tends more to grow slender, or, in
other words, proportionably less as the discharge is weaker. In this way all
complication disappears; the divisions descend with the proper velocity of the
liquid without modifying their initial volume; the liquid does not pass from
division to division, and hence its velocity of translation does not undergo
periodical variations; finally, each division which leaves the contracted section
furnishes only the material of a separate mass, and consequently the uumber
of masses which strike, in a given time, upon a stretched membrane is always
equal to that of the divisions which pass, in the same time, at the contracted
section. Only, when we diminish or increase the discharge, the divisions
acquire, from their origin, a less volume in the former case and a greater
volume in the second, a volume which they will afterwards preserve through
the whole passage of the continuous part.

It is essential to remark here that these variations in the volume of the
incipient divisions necessarily require corresponding variatious in their length,
and that hence these divisions must be shorter or longer according as the dis-
charge is weaker or stronger.

§ 3 bis. We shall adopt, then, as more simple, and as harmonizing theory
with facts, the new hypothesis just presented, and it will be necessary to cor-
rect in this sense § 76 of the 2d series. This hypothesis leads us, like the
first, to recognize two kinds of influences acting in opposite directions on the
jaw which determines the length of the coutinuous part when we cause the
discharge to vary; but here, again, we shall see that matters tend to simplifi-

cation.

First, let us remember that if the movement of translation were uniform,
the proportionality to the square root of the discharge would still be satisfied,
even beginning with very weak discharges, (2d series, §§ 72 and 75.) Now,

310 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

if the divisions descend with the accelerated velocity of the liquid, and if we
suppose that there thence results no change in the duration of their transforma-
tion, they will pass, during that duration, over a more considerable space, so
that the continuous part will be longer than if the acceleration did not exist,
and the excess, compared with the length which the continuous part would
have in the case of the uniform movement, will be considerable under a weak
or moderate discharge, while it will be inconsiderable under a very strong dis-
charge—this latter rendering the movement of translation in the continuous
part sensibly uniform. Accordingly, when we pass from the first of these two
discharges to the second, the ratio of the leagths of the continuous parts which
respectively correspond to them will be nearer to unity than it would be if the
acceleration were null; that is to say, nearer to unity than that of the square
roots of the discharges. ;

But the divisions cannot descend with an accelerated movement without
being at the same time elongated, (2d series, § 76,) aud thence proceed two
causes of diminution in the duration of the transformation. We have seen
(2d series, § 66) that the more the length of the divisions of a cylinder sur-
passes the limit of stability, the greater is the rapidity of transformation ; and,
on the other hand, the stretching out which the divisions of the vein thus
undergo must attenuate the constrictions more than the dilatations, because
the former, having already a tendency to grow deeper by the action of the
configurative forces, oppose no resistance to the effects of the elongation, while
the latter resist by virtue of the contrary tendency. This second influence,
the diminution, namely, in the duration of the traasformation, a diminution
which must be so much the more decided as the rapidity of translation less
approximates to uniformity, or as the discharge is weaker, operates evidently
to render the law more rapid than the proportionality to the square root of the
discharge, and this influence is consequently opposed to the former.

Finally, there is a third influence, the inverse of the preceding, and hence of
the same character with the first: as was shown at the end of the 2d para-
eraph, the incipient divisions must be proportionably shorter as the discharge
is weaker; but, agreeably to what has been said above, this curtailment, by
diminishing the excess of the length of each division beyond the limit of sta-
bility, must tend to augment the duration of the transformation. Consequently
the 78th paragraph of the 2d series, relating to the neutralization of the two
opposite kinds of influences, and therefore to the manifestation of the laws of
Savart, remains unchanged; only it must not be forgotten that the influences
to which we now refer are not altogether those which were indicated in the 77th
paragraph of that series, and it will be seen that, they are rather more simple.
But the second part of the 82d paragraph of the 2d series, in which we sought
to establish @ privri the conditions for realizing the laws advanced by Savart
in regard to the sounds which veins render, cannot be maintained, for the con-
siderations therein set forth rest on the first hypothesis. In reasoning accord-
ing to the new one we will say: for a determinate orifice, in proportion as the
discharge is increased, the constitution of the vein approximates more and
more to what it would be if there were no acceleration, and consequently the
length of its incipient divisions verges towards that which they would acquire
in the same case; whence it follows, from the first part of the same paragraph
82, that starting with a less discharge sufficiently strong, the laws of Savart
will be necessarily satisfied. This is all that the new hypothesis can furnish
us on the subject of the conditions in question; it does not enable us to deter-
mine the least discharge under which these conditions begin to be fulfilled; for
it does not give the precise elements for calculating the length of the incipient
divisions.

Lastly, the commencement of § 83 of the 2d series, which establishes, upon
the other hypothesis, the approximate uniformity of the movement of transla-

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. Sif

tion of the necks (cercles de gorge) of the constrictions in the small extent
which corresponds to an incipient division, must be also rectified. On the new
hypothesis, the movement of translation of the cercles de gorge is the movement
itself of the liquid, and we can calculate consequently with exactness, for the
discharge and orifice employed by Savart, how much the velocity has increased
at a distance from the contracted section six times the diameter of that see-
tion, that is to say, evidently greater than the length of an incipient division,
and the increase thus obtained scarcely exceeds a hundredth. The new hy-
pothesis therefore establishes, as well as the first, the nearly exact uniformity
of the movement of translation of the cercles de gorge in the small extent in
question, and consequently all the rest of the paragraph is justified.

§ 3. These rectifications having been made, we proceed directly to the sub-
ject. We will first briefly recapitulate what, according to the researches of
Savart, are the modifications which the vein experiences under the cireum-
stances we are considering, that is, when it is under the influence of vibratory
movements. The first fourteen of the following Nos. relate to veins descending
vertically.

1. The continuous part is shortened.

2. The thickness of the limpid portion seems augmented.

3. Each of the masses which are isolated at the lower extremity of the con-
tinuous part is first flattened in the vertical direction, and consequently its
horizontal diameter is greater than that of the sphere which it tends to consti-
tute.

4. The masses being thus abandoned to themselves under a flattened form,
and tending to assume the spherical form, they afterwards exceed this latter
through the effect of inertia, and are lengthened in the vertical direction, are
then flattened anew, and again elongated, and so on in succession; so that their
horizontal diameter, which was at first greater than that of a sphere of the same
volume, becomes afterwards less than this latter, then again greater, &¢. These
periodical variations of the horizontal diameter of the masses taking place
while the latter are borne forward by their movement of translation, the im-
pression left on the eye by the rapid passage of any one of these masses must
be that of a figure presenting a regularly arranged series of maxima and minima
of thickness, the former corresponding to the places by which the mass has
passed at the moments of its greatest horizontal development, and the latter
to the places by which it has passed at the moments of greatest horizontal con-
traction ; and since the successive masses pass, either exactly or nearly so, by
the same places in the same phases of their oscillations of form, the impression
which they individually produce are more or less completely identified, and the
discontinuous part of the vein presents in a permanent manner the differences
of thickness in question; in other words, this discontinuous part appears to be
composed of a regular series of elongated expansions and nodes occupying fixed
positions. When the above superposition is imperfect, each expansion presents
the appearance of an assemblage of films, of which each constitutes a species
of cone having for its axis that of the vein. About the half of the first expan-
sion is formed by the passage of the dilatations of the base of the continuous
part, so that this continuous part terminates about the middle of the length of
that expansion.

5. The length and the diameter of the expansions are so much the more con-
siderable as the discharge is stronger and the diameter of the orifice greater,
and the same is the case as regards the diameter of the nodes.

6. This assemblage of phenomena is manifested even when the vein is left
to itself under the ordinary circumstances, that is, when vibratory movements
are not designedly excited in the liquid of the vessel. ‘This results, on the one
hand, from the circumstance that the impact of the discontinuous part upon the
liquid in which it falls occasions vibrations which are transmitted to the vessel

312 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

4“

through the intervention of the air and the supports, and, on the other hand,
from the vessel also receiving through the supports the slight vibrations due to
external sounds communicated by the ground. It is only by withdrawing the
vessel, by means of certain expedients, from these two influences that the vein
assumes the aspect proper to it.

7. But all the phenomena enumerated under the first five of the preceding
numbers become much more decided and regular when, by help of an instru-
ment, we produce, in the vicinity of the apparatus, a sound in consonance with
that which would result from the shock of the discontinuous part of the vein
against a stretched membrane. ‘I'he continuous part is then considerably short-
ened; the diameter of the limpid portion is increased, the dilatations, being still
further massed upon themselves, grow larger, so that the nodes which separate
them are more elongated, and appear of smaller diameter.

8. Besides the above unison, other sounds, produced by an instrument in the
neighborhood of the apparatus, act upon the vein in an analogous manner, but
with much less energy. ‘There are also sounds which exert no influence.

9. In the particular case where the instrument varies very little from unison,
the continuous part of the vein is lengthened and shortened alternately, and the
ear is sensible of beats which coincide with those variations of length.

10. When the discontinuous part of the vein is received on a body which
can render only a determinate sound, it frequently happens that the vibrations
of that body modify the sound proper to the vein; but this appears impossible
unless the interval between the latter sound and that which agrees with the
body impinged upon does not exceed a minor third. When the sound of the
vein is thus modified by a foreign sound, it frequently requires only, in order
to cause a return to the tone which pertains to it, a slight blow on the apparatus
or a change of position in the body impinged upon, and it is always by abrupt
starts that the return is effected. If the interval between the two sounds be
very slight, they may make themselves heard periodically or even simultaneously.

11. ‘The modifications which the vein experiences under the influence of the
vibratory movements still increase and acquire a perfect regularity when the
sonorous instrument, (7,) instead of being at a certain distance from the appara-
tus, is placed in contact with the walls of the vessel and renders a very intense
sound exactly in unison with that which is proper to the vein. ‘The continu-
ous part is then so much abridged that the upper extremity of the first dilata-
tion almost touches the orifice, and, further, the superposition of the expansions
formed by the individual masses (4) is exact, so that no appearance of films is
longer perceptible.

12. This extreme regularity enables us clearly to distinguish the apparent
figure produced by the passage of the spherules interposed between the masses,
a figure which occupies the axis of the vein from the extremity of the continu-
ous part; here also may be observed expansions and nodes, but shorter than
those which are due to the passage of the masses.

13. By means of an instrument thus placed in contact with the walls of the
vessel, almost all sounds can produce effects analagous to those of unison with
the tone proper to the vein; but these effects are less decided in proportion as
the sound of the instrument varies more from the unison in question.

14. Further, under this condition, when the sound which is natural to the
vein is not in accord with that of the instrument, it may be brought to be so,
even when the variance between the numbers of vibrations is sufficiently great
to constitute an interval of a fifth above or more than an octave below the
sound proper to the vein.

15. If the vein, instead of flowing vertically from above downwards, is pro-
jected horizontally, and is left to the ordinary circumstances, or, in other words,
is not under the influence of a sonorous instrument, but is allowed to strike the
liquid of the vessel which receives it, the discontinuous part presents expan-

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 313

sions and nodes such as, in the same. circumstances, are presented by that of
vertically descending veins, (6,) and the vibrations of an instrument modify it
in the same manner. If the vein be ejected obliquely from below upwards,
the same phenomenaare still observed, so long as the angie which it forms with
the horizon does not exceed 20° to 25°,

16. But beyond that limit, and as far as 45° to 50°, the discontinuous part
assumes other aspects: when the vein is not under the influence of the sound
of an instrument, this discontinuous part appears spread out on one vertical
plane into a sort of sheaf. Under the action of vibrations of a definite period,
it may happen that the sheaf is resolved into two quite distinct jets, having
each its expansions and nodes regularly formed; it may even be that, for
another definite sound, the sheaf shall be replaced by three jets; finally, there
is always a sound which reduces the entire vein to a single jet, presenting a
system of expansions and nodes perfectly regular, and this sound is also that
which produces the greatest shortening of the continuous part.

17. For the same discharge and the same orifice, the number of vibrations
corresponding to the sound which exerts the maximum of effect on the length
of the continuous part and on the dimensions of the expansions of the vein,
is so much less as the direction in which this last is ejected makes a greater
angle with the descending vertical drawn from the orifice. The difference
between the numbers of vibrations which correspond with the case in which
the jet falls vertically and with that in which it is projected horizontally, is
inconsiderable ; but it becomes very great between this last case and that in
which the jet is an ascending vertical.

§ 4. Let us proceed now to the explanation of these singular phenomena.
What follows, as far as § 24, will relate to veins ejected in the descending ver-
tical, and, up to that point, such veins must constantly be kept in view.

Experiment has taught us (2d series, § 46) that, in the transformation of a
liquid cylinder the length of a constriction is exactly, or at least almost exactly,
equal to that of a dilatation, and we shall hereafter demonstrate that this
equality is strictly exact*at the commencement of the phenomenon; now this
result is evidently applicable to the incipient constrictions and dilatations of
the vein, and it follows that the respective durations of the passage of one of
these constrictions and of one of these dilatations at the contracted section are
equal; on the other hand, a division of a cylinder or of a vein being com-
prised between the centres of two neighboring constrictions, and hence being
composed of a dilatation and two semi-constrictions, the duration of the
passage of a division of the vein at the contracted section is necessarily
equivalent to the sum of the durations required for the passage of a dilatation
and a constriction; and since these two last are equal, we arrive at this first
consequence, that the duration of the passage, whether of a constriction or a
dilatation, at the contracted section, is equal to half that of the passage of a
division.

But the number of vibrations per second corresponding to the sound ren-
dered by the impact of the discontinuous part of the vein upon a stretched
membrane is, we have seen, (2d series, § 82,) double that of the isolated masses
which, in the same interval of time, strike upon that membrane, and, in virtue
of our new hypothesis, (§ 2,) this last number is always equal to that of the
divisions which pass, within the same time, at the contracted section; hence
the duration of each of the vibrations in question is, like the duration of the
passage of a constriction or a dilatation, equal to half that of the passage of
a division, and we thence deduce, finally, this fundamental conclusion: The
duration of each of the vibrations corresponding to the sound proper to the vein
as equal to that of the passage of a constriction or of a dilatation at the con-
tracted section.

314 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

.

§ 5. Let us suppose now that, through the means indicated by Savart, we
have withdrawn the vein from the influence of the vibrations caused by the
fall of the liquid into the vessel which receives it, and from that of external
noises; and that then, the vein being left to the sole action of the contigura-
tive forces, we transmit to the vessel from which it escapes, and consequently
to the liquid contained therein, a sound exactly in unison with that which
would be rendered by the impact of the discontinuous part against a membrane.
The liquid which flows from the interior of the vase towards.the orifice, passes
through it under the action of the resulting vibrations; and if these are com-
municated in a vertical direction, each portion of the vein which escapes at the
contracted section, under the influence of a descending vibration, will be pro-
pelled by the velocity V2gi increased by that of the vibration, and will, con-
sequently, contain more liquid than the portion which would have passed in
the same time in the absence of the vibrations. ‘The excess of velocity will
tend, it is true, to be communicated to the part of the vein situated below that
which we are considering; but, putting out of view for a moment the config-
urative forces, we must at least admit that this inferior part will oppose a cer-
tain resistance in virtue of its inertia, and that, therefore, the excess of liquid,
superinduced by the excess of velocity, will tend to disperse itself in a hori-
zontal direction, or, in other words, to dilate the portion to which it pertains.

This being premised, if the nearly cylindrical figure which the vein would
assume under the sole effects of the movement of translation of the liquid and
of the circular form of the orifice was a stable figure of equilibrium, the portion
which, under the action of the descending vibration, dilates while it passes at
the contracted section, would at the same time exert an effort to return. to its
first form; whence it necessarily follows, upon the hypothesis in question, that
in proportion as the dilatation is formed, it would be propagated to the subjacent
sections, and would constitute on the surface of the vein a dilated wave of a
certain length, which would advance with a velocity equal to the sum of the
velocity of its own propagation and of that of the liquid. ‘Then also the por-
tion of the vein which would afterwards pass at the* contracted section under
the action of an ascending vibration, and which” would consequently traverse
that section with the velocity V2 gh diminished by that of the vibration, would
produce, for the opposite reason, a constricted “wave of the same length with
the dilated wave, and which would advance behind the latter with the same
velocity ; there would then come a new dilated wave followed by a new con-
stricted one, and so on, as long as the communication of vibratory movements
was continued. But, by reason of the instability of the cylindrical figure and
of the tendency of the vein to transformation into isolated spheres, things will
pass in quite another manner. Let us imagine that the lower extremity of one
of the dilatations, which would be formed by the sole action of the configura-
tive forces due to the instability, should traverse the contracted section at the
precise moment when a descending vibration commences in the liquid. Now,
since the configurative forees impel in a continuous manner into this portion of
the vein an excess of liquid which dilates it, without any tendency in the vein
to return upon itself, we see that the quantity of liquid superinduced at the
same time by the additional velocity due to the descending vibration may be
distributed in the horizontal direction and contribute to the formation of the
dilatation, without having to surmount a contrary tendency. Moreover, since
the duration of the vibration is equal to the time which the portion of the vein,
whose configurative forces would themselves alone form an incipient dilatation,
occupies in passing at the contracted section, the upper extremity of that por-
tion will traverse the contracted section at the precise moment when the vibra-
tion terminates, so that the immediate action of this vibration will be exerted
on the whole portion in question, and only on that portion. In fine, since the
dilatation produced by the combined actions of which we have just spoken has

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 315

no tendency to become effaced, it will not be propagated to the subjacent parts,
and consequently will not give rise toa wave. Hence the portion of the vein
under consideration will be more dilated from the first than it would have been
in the absence of vibratory movements; but it will have the same length and
descend with the same velocity as in this latter case. /

After the descending vibration will come an ascending one, and this latter
diminishing the velocity of the passage at the contracted section, there will re
sult, as has been already remarked, in the portion of the vein which passes
under its influence, a diminution of volume, so that this portion will tend to be-
come narrower; but the configurative forces tending to make of this same por-
tion an incipient constriction, the attenuation due to the vibration will be effected
without encountering an opposite tendency, and consequently without giving
rise to the formation of a wave. ‘Thus we see that, as in the case of the dila-
tation which precedes it, the constriction formed by the double action of the
contigurative forces and of the vibration will be less decided, but will have the
same length and\descend with the same velocity as if the vein were abandoned
to the sole action of the configurative forces.

In fine, the same thing will take place in regard to all the other dilatations
and constrictions: in virtue of the equality between the time occupied by each
of these portions of the vein in passing at the contracted section and the dura-
tion of each vibration, all the dilatations will coincide with the descending
vibrations, and all the constrictions with the ascending vibrations ; all will con-
sequently preserve their length and their velocity of translation, but all will
quit the contracted section more distinctly defined, or, to use other words, in a
more advanced phase of transformation, than if vibratory movements had not
been produced.

§ 6. But the action of these movements will not be limited to this: in effect,
the velocities of the ascending and descending vibrations—velocities which, a3
we have shown, change direction in the dilatations and constrictions to produce
a greater transverse development of the former and a greater attenuation of the
latter—cannot be annihilated, in each of these portions, at the moment when its
passage at the contracted section is finished ; these velocities thus changed into
transverse velocities will continue therefore, as acquired velocities, to form an
addition tv those which result from the configurative forces.

§ 7. In order that the transmitted vibrations shall exert with full intensity
on the incipient divisions of the vein the action described in the two preceding
paragraphs, it is necessary that at the orifice they should have, as we have sup-
posed, a vertical direction. It would be ditticult, doubtless, to show a priori that
in being propagated to the orifice the vibrations really take that direction; but
Savart, who has been so much occupied with the communication of vibratory
movements, admits the fact implicitly : he supposes, in effect, that on the one
hand these vibrations only reinforce those which arise, according to him, from
the efflux itself and which would necessarily be vertical, and on the other he
does not say that, to obtain the maximum of action, it is necessary to give to
the sonorous instrument any particular position. For the rest, if we find therein
some diticulty, it would suffice to remark that whatever be the real direction
in which the liquid molecules, in traversing the orifice, execute the vibrations
transmitted to them, we may always, save in the wholly exceptional case in
which that direction is exactly horizontal, decompose each vibration into two
others, of which the horizontal one will exert no influence on the transforma-
tion of the divisions of the vein, while the other and vertical one will exert its
whole action.

We have supposed, moreover, that the moment when each descending vibra-
tion commences is also that when the lower extremity of each dilatation passes
at the contracted section; but if, at the first instant when the vibrations make
themselves felt, this coincidence does not take place, there will be a coutlict

\

816 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

between the action of the configurative forces and that of the vibrations, and it
may be readily conceived that then the transformation of the vein, which being
only a phenomenon of instability may be displaced by slight causes, will cause
the collective dilatations and restrictions to retrograde or advance, so as to estab-
lish very soon the above coincidence and thus allow the concurrence and entire
freedom of the two systems of action.

8. These principles being established, we shall see emerge from them one
by one all the modifications undergone by the vein through the influence of the
vibrations. *

Let us first remember that when the vein is abandoned to the sole action of
the configurative forces the velocity with which the transformation is accom-
plished remains very small to a quite considerable distance from the contracted
section, which gives to the corresponding portion of the vein a calm and limpid
aspect; in the second place, that, further on, the dilatations acquiring a marked
and more rapid development, the vein appears to grow larger up to the point
at which the masses become isolated; and, finally, that beyond that point the
diameter of the vein, a diameter which is that of these masses, is sensibly uni-
form. (2d series, § 70.)

Let us suppose now such a vein, and produce, in proximity with the apparatus,
the sound we have been considering in all that precedes. Under the influence
of this sound each division quitting the contracted section in a more advanced
phase of transformation, (§ 5,) and the transformation moreover advancing from
that phase with a greater velocity than it would have done under the sole in-
fluence of the configurative forces, (§ 6,) it necessarily results that this transfor-
mation will be completed in less time; consequently each division will attain
the state of an isolated mass ata less distance from the orifice, and thus the
continuous part will be rendered shorter. And since the dilatations are more
developed from their inception, we sce, in the second place, that the apparent
thickness of the limpid portion of the vein, a thickness which, at each point in
the length of that limpid portion, is evidently that which the dilatations have
acquired at the moment of passing it, will be augmented. In the third place,
the excess of transverse velocity which the transformation receives from the
vibrations, and which continues as acquired velocity, must necessarily cause the
horizontal diameter of the successive masses to exceed that of the spheres
which these masses tend to constitute, so that the masses will become flattened
in the vertical direction. But we perceive that this horizontal extension and
vertical flattening render the capillary pressure, at the circumference of the
mass, superior to that of the points near the axis, and that thence arises an in-
creasing resistance which ends by destroying the transverse velocity. Then
the differences of pressure will act freely, and the mass will return upon itself
to attain its figure of equilibrium, that is, the spherical figure; but the phe-
nomenon, being effected with an accelerated velocity, cannot stop at this last
figure, and the mass will be contracted in the horizontal direction while it is
elongated in the vertical direction, until the increasing resistance which results
from new inequalities between the pressures has annihilated the acquired ve-
locity ; the mass being now urged by the differences of pressure which have
produced that resistance will again return towards the spherical figure, which
it will once more surpass, and extending itself a second time in the horizontal
direction will become flattened in the vertical one; after which it will recom-
mence the same series of modifications, and will continue these oscillations of
form as long as its fall continues.

Thus we eXplain very simply, for the case of unison with the sound which
the impact of the discontinuous part would occasion, the facts recited in Nos. 1,
2,3 and 4, of §3. Only, as the extremity of the continuous part of the vein
occurs about the mid-length of the first expansion, and consequently is little
distant from the point corresponding to the first of the maxima of thickness of

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 8317

the discontinuous part, we perceive that each mass must attain its first pnase
of greatest horizontal development a little before it completely detaches itself,
and at the moment, no doubt, when it clings to that which follows it only by a
thread. As to the system of films of which the expansions present the ap-
pearance when the phenomena are not altogether regular, this, as Savart has
stated, is evidently the result of the inexact superposition of several expansions
individually produced by successive masses: these expansions are then seen
simultaneously, and are observed as though through one another, from the effeet
of the persistence of their impressions on the retina.

§ 9. It is clear that the time comprised between two phases of the strongest
horizontal contraction, or, in other words, that which each mass oceupies in
accomplishing a complete oscillation of form, is independent of the velocity of
translation; consequently, the interval which a mass traverses during the time
in question is proportionably greater as the velocity of translation is more con-
siderable; but this interval is evidently the distance which separates the centres
of two nodes, or the length of an expansion;* this length must therefore in-
crease with the discharge.

The volume of the incipient divisions thus increasing with the discharge,
and each of these divisions furnishing an isolated mass, the volume of these
masses must equally increase with fies discharge; now the more volume these
masses have, the greater must be their horizontal diameter in its successive
maxima and minima; but these maxima and minima diameters are respectively
the diameters of the expansions and nodes; hence the diameters of the expan-
sions and those of the nodes must also augment with the discharge. Only this
augmentation tends towards a limit of but little extent; for the greatest volume
which the isolated masses can acquire is evidently that which they would assume
were the movement of translation of the liquid uniform, that is to say, were it
that of the spheres into which might be resolved an indefinite cylinder formed
of the same liquid and having a diameter equal to that of the contracted see-
tion, (2d series, § 74.)

Now, if the quantity does not vary, but we use a larger orifice, the volume
of the divisions of the vein, and consequently that of the isolated masses, will
be more considerable ; but the greater these masses, the less rapid must be
their oscillations of form, and therefore the more space must they traverse in
their descent, during one of these oscillations ; hence the length of the expan-
sions must increase with the diameter of the orifice. As to the respective
diameters of the expansions and nodes, it is evident, from what has been re-

marked above, that they will increase at the same time. We see, therefore,
from the contents of this paragraph, that the facts of No. 5 of § 8 are neces-
sary consequences of the theory; always, however, upon the supposition that
the vibrations are of the same period with those of the sound proper to the
vein. We pass now to the facts of Nos. 6 and 7.

§ 10. When the vein is not under the influence of a sonorous instrument,
but is received in a vessel placed upon the ground, the principal cause of the
vibratory movements transmitted by the air and the supports to the vessel
from which the discharge takes place is the impact of the isolated masses
against the liquid into which they fall; we perceive then that, in these move-
ments, vibrations must prevail of the same period with those which would
result from the impact of the masses in question against a stretched membrane,
aud consequently the action exerted upon the vein is explained by what has

cen stated in the preceding paragraphs. But the vibrations thus produced
not having a great intensity, the modifications of the vein cannot acquire all

*Tt is thus that Savart seems to consider the expansions when occupied with their length,
and we conform to his expressions in the following paragraph; but, in reality, it is obvious
that the space in question is composed of an expausion and two half nodes.

318 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

the development of which they are susceptible ; besides, these vibrations being
but little regular, and being accompanied by slight and still more irregular
vibrations which proceed from external noises, the phenomena cannot fail to
be impressed by these irregularities, and it is under these circumstances, in
effect, that Savart describes the appearance of films in the interior of the ex-
pansions. Sih

Savart has approximately measured, under the circumstances in question, in
veins of water ejected by two different orifices and with different discharges,
the lengths and diameters of the expansions as well as the diameters of the
nodes. We deem it not superfluous to reproduce here the results of those
measurements, in which the centimetre is assumed as unity:

‘

Orifice of six millimetres diameter.

Discharges. | Lengths of thecon-| Lengths of the | Diameters of the | Diameters of the
tinuous part. expansions. expansions. nodes.
4.5 40 25 | 0.9 0.70
12 59 30 1.0 0.75
27 82 39 i4 0. 80
47 112 60 1.2 0. 90

Orifice of three millimetres diameter.

Discharges. | Lengths of thecon-| Lengths of the | Diameters of the | Diameters of the
tinuous part. expansions, expansions. nodes.
4.5 16 7.8 0. 50 0. 28
> 12 20 9 0.52 0. 32
27 41 13 0.55 0. 36
47 5d 16 0. 60 0, 40

We will here remark that the length of an expansion being the space tra-
versed by a mass during the continuance of one oscillation of form, and that
continuance being constant in the same vein, the expansions pertaining to this
latter must, because of the acceleration of the descent, increase in length,
beginning with the first. It is strange, therefore, that Savart, who, in another
part of his memoir, speaks of this increase in reference to a particular experi-
ment, should have given, in the above tables, the lengths in question as abso-
lute; we must presume that they relate to the first expansion of each vein.
In fact, the experiment in which Savart observed the increase of length of the
expansions would render the effect more apparent, because the first expansion
occurred very near the orifice.

§ 11. lf, while the vein falls freely in the liquid of the vessel which receives
it, we cause an instrument which yields a unison. as has been supposed in
the preceding instances, to sound in proximity with the apparatus, then, under
the action of these more intense and perfectly regular vibrations, the modifica-
tions of the vein will be necessarily more distinct; that is, the limpid portion
will appear a little thicker, the continuous part will undergo a new shortening,
the expansions will be enlarged and the nodes reduced. Moreover, the expan-
sions individually formed by each of the masses will be superposed in a more
exact manner, and hence will less overreach one another towards their extremi-
ties, so that the expansions which result from them collectively will be more

WITHDRAWN PROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 319

massed on each other, and the nodes which separate the latter will seem to be
elongated. And such, in reality, as we sce by No. 7 of § 3, is the state of the
vein under the influence in question.

The phenomena would be much more regular still if the vein were originally
withdrawn from all extraneous influence, and Savart, in fact, speaks of the
great regularity of the expansions which show themselves when such a vein is
received on a stretched membrane, which then serves as a sonorcus instrument
yielding an unison.

§ 12. When the instrument, which is made to resound in the vicinity of the
apparatus, yields a tone not in unison with that appropriate to the vein, the
vibrations no longer succeeding one another at the same intervals occupied by
the passage of the dilatations and constrictions due to the configurative forces,
there can be no uninterrupted concurrence between the two species of action;
but neither can these be incessantly in conflict, and it is obvious that from this
alternation of accord and opposition must result effects of a very complicated
kind. We will attempt, however, to discriminate to a certain point what then
occurs in the vein.

To simplify as far as possible, we will suppose extraneous action to be pre-
viously annulled. During the succession of the phenomena let us seize, in
thought, the instant when the middle of a constriction due to the configurative
forces traverses the contracted section precisely in the middle of the duration
of an ascending vibration; this vibration will then evidently®concur with the
configurative forces to deepen the constriction. But if the sound of the in-
strument is sharper than that of the vein, and the vibration has therefore less
duration than the passage of the constriction, a part, more or less considerable,
of the base of the latter will have been in conflict with the end of the de-
scending vibration which has preceded, and an equivalent part of the summit
will be equally in conflict with the commencement of the descending vibration
which follows, since these descending vibrations tend to dilate the portions of
the vein on which they act. If, on the contrary, the sound of the instrument
is graver than that of the vein, it is clear that the concurrence will take place
for the whole of the constriction, but that the commencement of the vibration
will have been in conflict with the upper part of the preceding dilatation, and
that the close of this vibration will be in conflict with the lower part of the
succeeding dilatation. ‘

It is easy to perceive that after a certain number of vibrations an identical
effect will be produced; that is, that the middle of an ascending vibration will
coincide anew with the middle of the passage of a constriction, that the same
thing will still recur after a number of vibrations equal to the preceding, and
so on, periodically, at equal intervals. If, for instance, the duration of a vibra-
tion be % of that of the passage of a constriction or a dilatation, the total dura-
tion of six double vibrations, each composed of an ascending and a descending
vibration, will be equivalent to the total duration of the passage of five con-
strictions and five dilatations; now, it is easy to perceive that if we commence
computing this duration at the instant of one of the above coincidences, it will
also terminate at the instant of a like coincidence; m our example, therefore,
the coincidences will be reproduced successively after intervals equal to the
duration of six double vibrations. Let us now endeavor to: discover what
passes during each of these intervals, or, in other words, between one coinci-
dence and the following.

With that view let us examine what takes place at the moment when the
first half of one of these intervals terminates. In the example we have taken
we shall evidently be then at the middle of an ascending vibration; but if we
reflect that the interval commences at the passage of the inception of a division
(§ 4) and exactly comprises the passage of five entire divisions, we shall reeog-
nize that the end of its first half js the instant of the passage of the middle

320 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

of a division, and, consequently, of the middle of a dilatation ; hence, for this
entire vibration there will be opposition with the configurative forces ; this will
be the maximum of the conflict, and it is obvious that this conflict will, till
then, have gone oh augmenting; that is to say, occupying greater and greater
portions of the successive vibrations, to diminish afterwards by the same de-
grees. These principles being granted, let us see what can be deduced from
them.

Each of the constrictions for which a coincidence shall exist will quit, the
contracted section in a more advanced phase of transformation, and hence will
be broken at a less distance from the orifice than if vibratory movements had
not been produecd; but the following constriction, which is under less ad-
vanced conditions, can only be broken a little further on, and the subsequent
ruptures will, in like manner, be effected further and further from the orifice,
until the rupture of the constriction in regard to which the conflict between
the two actions is at its maximum; after which things will proceed in an in-
verse order; that is, the successive places of rupture will reascend till there
recurs anew.a constriction with a coincidence, when all will recommence in the
same order as at first. It appears then that, in such a vein, the continuous
part has different lengths, which succeed one another periodically; but the
shortest of these lengths must be regarded as being that of the real continuous
part of the vein, since the continuity is there persistent, and it is necessarily
smaller than wold be the continuous part of the same vein not subjected to
the influence of a sonorous instrument. Still the shortening will not be so
great as in the case of unison. In effect, if the sound of the instrument is
sharper, the most complete concurrence between the two kinds of action only
takes place, as has been said above, with the middle portion of the constric-
tions upon which it falls, and there is conflict in the extreme portions. If the
sound of the instrument is graver, the concurrence extends, indeed, to the
whole of the constriction, but the conflict then exists in the adjacent portions
of the two dilatations between which this constriction is comprised, and these
portions admitting with less facility the liquid which is driven towards them,
the constriction cannot obey with entire freedom the two actions which tend
to narrow it.

In the second place, from what has been just said, the shortening should be
proportionably less as the sound of the instrument deviates more from unison ;
for the more it is above this, the less is the portion of the constriction for which
a concurrence exists; and the more it is below, the further does the conflict
extend over the two neighboring dilatations. And since in the constrictions
for which coincidence exists, and to a certain distance on both sides of each of
them, the action of the vibrations favors, more or less, that of the configurative
forces, the vein will present, in an analogous but less decided manner, the other
modifications which unison determines; hence the limpid portion will still
appear a little thickened, and the interrupted part will have expansions and
nodes; but these modifications will be the less decided as the interval between
the sound of the instrument and consonance is greater.

We may, therefore, so far as the complexity of the subject permits it, pro-
nounce substantially the four following conclusions: When, at a certain dis-
tance trom the apparatus, a sound is produced sharper or graver than that
which is proper to the vein, first, the continuous part will assume periodically
diffcrent lengths ; second, the shortest of these lengths, which is that of the
true continuous part, will be less than was the length of the sole continuous
part before the action of the instrument, but this curtailment will not be so
great as in the case of unison; third, the vein will present, in a manner analo-
gous to that which takes place under the action of unison, but at the same
time less decidedly, a smull increase of thickness in the limpid portion and a
system of expansions and nodes in the interrupted part; fourth, all these phe-

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 391

nomena will be the less decided as the sound of the instrument deviates more
from unison, so that the sounds which depart too much from that unison,
whether above or below, will appear inoperative.

We have supposed that extraneous action has been previously neutralized ;
but this action tending of itself to occasion like effects, (§ 10,) it will be under-
stood that if we allow it to subsist, it can scarcely but add to the intensity of
the phenomena. We may here take notice that sounds, differing from unison,
give rise at the same time to effects of another kind, effects which will, in gen-
eral, be little apparent in veins directed vertically, but which are manifested,
as will be seen, in those whose emission takes place under certain obliquities.
These effects depend on the conflict between the vibrations and the configura-
tive forces, and are consequently null in the case of unison; they cannot,
therefore, like those we have been considering, go on decreasing from that
point, but, on the contrary, it is with the departure from unison that they are
developed. ’

§ 13. The first of the four conclusions above stated is clearly verified, in a
particular case, by the fact of No. 9 of § 3. In effect, when the sound of the
instrument is very nearly consonant, the duration of a vibration differs very
little from that of a dilatation or a constriction, and consequently when a co-
incidence shall occur, it will be almost complete; that is to say, the conflict
will oceupy only extremely small portions of either the constriction or the two
adjacent dilatations; for such a constriction, therefore, the effect will be nearly
the same as if there were exact unison, whence it follows that at the moment
of the rupture of this constriction the continuous part of the vein will have
perceptibly the length which corresponds with unison; it will then acquire,
progressively, greater lengths until that is reached which corresponds to the
maximum of conflict; but on account of the approximate equality of the re-
spective durations of a vibration and of the transit of a dilatation or a con-
striction, it will evidently be only after a sensible space of time that this maxi-
mum will present itself, so that the gradual elongation of the continuous part
will be effected with sufficient slowness to be followed by the eye; and such
will necessarily be the case with the next and the succeeding curtailments of
length. As to the beats, it is plain that they result from the mutual reaction
of the sound of the instrument and of that of the vein; for although Savart
does not say so in express terms, we may conclude from the manner in which
he states the fact in question, that the vein must fall on a stretched membrane.

Except in this particular case of a very small interval between the sound of
the instrument and that of the vein, Savart says nothing of periodical changes
of the length of the continuous part, and not without reason, as we shall see.
For intervals which do not meet the above condition, these changes are too
rapid to allow their succession to be distinguished, insomuch that all the
lengths must seem simultaneous as well as all the systems of expansions cor-
responding to those lengths; each of the expansions of the vein, therefore,
must, in these circumstances, appear to be formed of individual expansions not
exactly superposed, and consequently present the aspect of an assemblage of
films, (§ 8;) now, there was nothing new in this aspect for Savart, who had
observed it (§ 10) in the expansions of veins not subjected to the influence of
a sonorous instrument.

§ 14. The three other conclusions of § 12 seem confirmed by No. 8 of § 3.
Yet the manner in which Savart mentions the facts might cast some doubt on
the entire exactness of that agreement; we shall therefore give verbatim the
only passages which relate to the facts in question :

‘* Sounds which form the grave octave and fifth, the minor third, the superfluous fourth,
and the shrill octave of that rendered by the impact of the interrupted part against an
auxiliary body, produce in the vein modifications analogous to those just described, [those,

namely, produced by unison, ] but with much less energy; and there are sounds which do
not act in any manner on its dimensions and the aspect it presents.”

21s

322 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

*
And afterwards, in speaking of a vein received at a very small distance from
the orifice on a thick solid body:
‘Tn this case, as well as when the vein is entire, we observe that the grave and high

octaves, the fifth and the sharp minor thirdsof the sound in question—that is, of unison—
also influence, though in a less degree, the state of the vein.”

And again, in reference to the modifications experienced, under the influence
of the consonance due to the impact against a stretched membrane, by a vein
withdrawn from every other extraneous influence :

‘Analogous results are obtained when, with a stringed instrument, different sounds are
produced in the vicinity of the reservoir, but one of the sounds always exerts upon the vein
a greater influence than all the others.”

Do these passages signify that besides unison it is only the grave octave and
fifth, the minor third, the superfluous fourth, and the shrill octave which modify
the state of the vein? That is little probable, for then, instead of saying,
“there are sounds which do not act in any manner,” &c., Savart would have
said, all the other sounds which precede them are without influence, &c. Must we
interpret these passages as admitting that the sounds therein specified are the
most active after unison, and that, among the remaining tones of the gamut,
some are simply less efficacious, while others absolutely exert no influence !
But in that case, can we believe that Savart would have thus expressed himself?
We remark, moreover, that the superfluous fourth mentioned in the first pas-
sage is omitted in the second.

These vague ‘statements show that Savart had but little studied the influence
of other sounds than unison, at least under the circumstances which we are
considering, and it appears to us that there could no more be deduced therefrom
the existence of any disagreement between our theoretical conclusions and the
facts, than that of an absolute accordance. Fortunately Savart contrived after-
wards to augment the energy of action of the vibrations produced by the instru-
ment, and then the effects, such as he describes them, must be regarded as
wholly conformable with our conclusions, as will presently be seen.

§ 15. To finish what regards the influence of a sound excited at a distance :
and different from unison, we have still to account for the facts of No. 10 of § 3.
We shall proceed to show that these facts, excepting the last, depend on a more
general principle, which may be stated in the following manner: if the vibra-
tions of the instrument are sufliciently energetic in relation to those occasioned
by the impact of the isolated masses, and if at the same time the interval of the
two sounds is not too great, the sound of the vein may be brought to unison
with that of the instrunfent. We observe that these circumstances are those
of the number cited: in effect, when the vein falls on a body which can only
render a determinate sound, such as a diapason, if we suppose for an instant
that it undergoes no modification in the number of the isolated masses¢ the
vibrations due to the impact of these masses will be generally of another period
than those of the body struck, and consequently they can only proceed from
the circumstance that each time a mass reaches that body the air is driven from
between them, then returns, to be expelled anew on the arrival of the following
mass, and so on in succession; but the sonorous waves produced in this manner
" are necessarily very weak relatively to those produced by the vibrations of ihe
body struck ; besides, we have it in our power, by varying either the discharge
or the diameter of the orifice, to diminish as much as we please the interval of
the two sounds.

The vibrations of the instrument, (or, in the case before us, of the body im-
pinged upon,) transmitted by the air to the vessel and the liquid, not having
the same duration with the transits of the incipient constrictions and dilata-
tions due to the configurative forces, there is, as has been shown, (§ 12,) a varia-
ble conflict between these two kinds of action; but, if the two sounds do not

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 323

differ too much from one another, we can conceive that the transformation of
the vein, a phenomenon susceptible of being influenced by extraneous causes,
(2d series, § 58,) may, under the action of the vibrations, lengthen or shorten
the incipient constrictions and dilatations, in such manner that the duration of
the passage of each of them shall be precisely equal to that of a vibration, and
that the two kinds of action shall be constantly in accord; this point being at-
tained, the sound of the vein will be necessarily in unison with that of the in-
strument. Only, for the vibrations of the instrument to be capable of realiz-
ing that result, it is obviously necessary that they should have a suflicient de-
gree of energy relatively to the vibrations of the sound proper to the vein,
since these last tend to favor the normal action of the configurative forces.

We shall better comprehend the phenomenon by considering it under a point
of view a little different. Let us remember that the vibrations tend of them-
selves to produce, in the vein, incipient constrictions and dilatations, (§ 5;) now,
if these, constrictions and dilatations are a little superior or a little inferior in
length to those which the configurative forces on their side tend to, originate,
and if moreover the action of the vibrations is energetic enough to control
that of these forces, the system of incipient constrictions and dilatations which
will be formed must be that which depends on the vibrations, and hence the
transformation thus modified at its origin will be completed after this new
manner.

But this state of the vein is a forced one, since the natural mode of transfor-
mation is altered. Hence, if something suddenly disturbs the succession or
regular transmission of the vibrations, the configurative forces ‘will at once be-
come again preponderant, and the incipient contractions and dilatations will
resume the length which corresponds with the free action of those forces. Thus
is explained without difficulty the statement of No. 10, § 3, that it often re-
quires but a slight blow given to the apparatus or a change in the position of
the body struck suddenly to restore the sound of the vein to the tone which is
proper to it. We have.supposed that, in the experiment referred to, the sound
of the vein is restored to unison with that of the body receiving the impact,
conformably with the principle advanced at the beginning of this paragraph.
Savart, however, as may be inferred from the statement in the number in ques-
tion, does nét express himself in this respect in precise terms: he merely says
that the sound of the body struck modifies that of the vein, that it changes its
period; but other experiments which we shall presently discuss:authorize us to
ascribe to these words the sense we have given them.

§ 16. We further learn from No. 10 of § 3, that when the difference of the
two sounds is very small, these two sounds may make themselves heard periodi-
cally or even simultaneously. Let us try likewise to explain these facts.

We will suppose, for the sake of distinctness, that the sound proper to the
vein is somewhat graver than that of the body struck. In the case of exact.
unison, the number of impulses of the masses in a given time would be half
the number of the vibrations of the body in the same time, and consequently the
interval between two successive impulses would be equal to the duration of two
of these vibrations; therefore, upon the above supposition, the interval between
two impulses will a little exceed the duration of two vibrations, and if the re-
action of these vibrations on the incipient constrictions and dilatations is not
sufficiently powerful to modify the length and thus produce unison, the small
excess of duration of the intervals in question will be maintained. This pre-
mised, let us begin with the first impulse. This will cause the body to perform
a vibration directed from above downwards, which will be followed by a vibra-
tion from below upwards; then, a little after the commencement of a new de-
scending vibration, the second impulse will arrive; the third will act during
the third descending vibration, but at a little more advanced phase of that vi-
bration; the fourth impulse will take place during the fourth descending vibra~

324 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

tion and at a phase still a little more advanced ; and so on, until an impulse
perceptibly coincides with the termination of such a vibration. — Under these
repeated impulses, the amplitude of the vibrations of the body will necessarily
go on increasing, as far as the impulse last cited. But, by virtue of the small
excess of duration of the intervals, the impulses which follow will oceur during
the ascending vibrations, and, as before, at phases more and more advanced, so
that after a number of impulses equal to that of the preceding series, the body
will again be struck at the instant of the termination of a vibration. Now, this
second group of impulses will evidently destroy the effects of the first; that is
to say, will gradually diminish the amplitude of the vibrations and end by an-
nulling them. A third group of impulses will revive these vibrations, a fourth
will annul them anew, and so on indefinitely. The sound of the body struck
will be therefore alternately raised and lowered; on the other hand, the sound
of the vein will be weaker when the masses reach the body during its descend-
ing vibrations than when they strike it during its ascending vibrations, on ac-
count of tbe difference of the relative velocities; and we see, moreover, that this
latter sound has-its minima during the augmentations of that of the body, and
its maxima during the diminutions. This being so, if the vibrations of the
body acquire, in their greatest amplitude, a certain energy, and if the relative
velocity of the impulses becomes at the same time sufficiently small, the sound
of the vein will be entirely masked at the moments of greatest intensity of that
of the body, to reappear and predominate in turn at the intermediate moments;
and consequently the two sounds will be heard periodically. But if the body
is capable of executing vibrations of only small amplitude, and if it be held at
a great distance from the orifice, it may be that the relative velocity of the im-
pulses shall continue to be always considerable, so that the sound of the vein
will be perceptibly uniform, and that of the body, in its maxima, not have suf-
ficient intensity to mask it. In that case, the first will not cease to be perceived,
and consequently, during the periods of intensification of the second, they will
be both heard at once. It is doubtless in this sense that we should interpret
the words, or even simultaneously, which are literally borrowed from Savart.

§ 17. Let us now revert to the case where a sonorous instrument is made to
render a sound in exact unison with that proper to the vein. If the instru-
ment, instead of acting at a distance, is placed in contact with the walls of the
vessel whence the vein escapes, it is clear that the vibrations communicated to
those walls and propagated in the liquid will be much more energetic, and that,
in consequence, the modifications of the vein will be much more decided ;
moreover, the small irregularities spoken of in § 10 will be then entirely
effaced. The contents of No. 11 of § 3 are thus explained of themselves.

§ 18. Proceeding to No. 12 of § 3, we observe, in the axis of the vein, on
quitting the lower extremity of the continuous part, another system of expan-
sions and nodes more minute as well as shorter, which is due, as Savart has
shown, to the spherules which accompany the masses. :

Here an apparent difficulty presents itself. When the vein is withdrawn
from all vibratory action, its interrupted part is free from expansions and nodes;
it would seem, therefore, that under the sole action of the configurative forces,
the masses arrive at the spherical form without perceptible oscillations, and
that the oscillations of form take place only in the case in which the configura-
tive forces are re-enforced by vibrations; now, the mode of production of the
spherules can in no manner be influenced by the vibrations, for these act di-
rectly only at the contracted section; lower down than that section, their effect
is lanited to the acquired velocities, (§§ 6 and 8,) which accelerate the develop-
ment of the dilatations and the deepening of the constrictions, then to the con-
version of each of these last into a thread, and this thread is afterwards trans-
formed, thus furnishing the spherules by the configurative forces alone, which
arise therein as in every liquid cylinder sufficiently elongated; nevertheless,

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION CF GRAVITY. 325

these spherules pass through oscillations of form, since the trace of their
passage before the eye presents expansions and nodes.

For the purpose of elucidating this point let us examine, attentively, what
are the circumstances in regard to the spherules and in regard to the large
masses. Let us remember (2d series, § 62) that the thread generally separates
into three parts, of which the two extreme ones reunite themselves respectively
with the two large masses between which the thread is comprised, while the
intermediate one contracts itself at once and symmetrically from above and
below, dilating at the same time horizontally so as to produce the spherule in
question. By virtue of this simultaneousness and symmetry of action, the
small portion of liquid attains the spherical form towards which it tends, but it
does so with an acquired velocity and thus necessarily overpasses it, so that
its vertical diameter becomes less and its horizontal diameter greater than the
diameter of the sphere of the same volume; hence the oscillations of form of
the spherules, and consequently the expansions and nodes which result from

, them.

Things do not occur, however, after identically the same manner with the
large mass suspended to the thread and which is isolated by its rupture; in
effect, a moment before this separation the mass in question was already ren-
dered free at its lower part by the rupture of the thread formed between it

‘and the mass which precedes it; here, then, the ruptures below and above the
mass, and, of course, the two contractions which tend to flatten it in the verti-
cal direction, do not take place at the same time; besides, as each of these
contractions must be followed by an elongation, neither do these take place
simultaneously, and the same is the case consequently with the contractions
and elongations which follow. ‘Thus each contraction from the bottom of the
mass will be effected wholly or in part while an elongation is taking place
above, and vce versa; but the first tends to increase the horizontal diameter
of the mass and the second to diminish it; their effects on this diameter will,
therefore, more or less destroy one another, and if there be no vibratory influ-
ence which, by the accession of velocity which it imparts to the transforma-
tion, shall carry the diameter in question beyond that of the sphere and thus
determine an excess of pressure to the equator of the mass, this diameter will
vary but little, and consequently we shall observe no system of expansions
and nodes in the discontinuous part of the vein. We see that, even under the
sole action of the contigurative forces, the masses which become isolated at the
extremity of the continuous part are necessarily the seat of oscillations of
form, though these oscillations can only exist in a marked degree in the vertical
direction. We have, therefore, committed a slight error in § 69 of the 2d
series, by saying that, after being isolated, the masses at once form themselves
into spheres.

§ 19. Let us return, for an instant, to the spherules. When a thread is trans-
formed, the small constrictions therein produced become themselves changed
into still more slender threads, each of which breaks at two points, and thus
furnishes, by its middle portion, an exceedingly small spherule, (2d series, § 62.)
These last spherules are frequently thrown beyond the axis of the vein, im-
pelled, no doubt, by the movements of the air; but as their mode of genera-
tion is the same with that of the less minute spherules of which we took no-
tice above, they also must undergo oscillation$ of form, and Savart assures us
that this is the case, though without indicating by what means he verified it:
the parabolic trajectory described by such of these spherules as are projected
beyond the vein leaves probably on the eye.a trace sufficient to allow the ob-
servation therein of expansions and nodes; it may be also possible, perhaps,
to distinguish the apparent figure resulting from the passage of those which
maintain their position in the axis.

326 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

§ 20. Let us now produce anew a sound which differs from that of the vein,
still continuing to place the sonorous instrument in contact with the vessel, so
as to give more energy to the action of the vibrations. We perceive, by No.
12 of § 3, that in this case the last three conclusions of § 12 are distinctly in
accordance with the observations of Savart. ‘There may, it is true, seem some-
thing vague in the words, almost all sounds ; but they cannot be supposed to
signify that ineffectual sounds alternate with effectual ones. Let us suppose,
in effect, for an instant, the inefficacy of certain intermediate sounds, and
imagine that the tone of the instrument goes on deviating in a continuous man-
ner from that of the vein; then, when we quit one of these inefficacious sounds,
it will be necessary either that the action on the vein, from being null as it
was for this sound, increases gradually to a certain point, which would be con-
trary to the statement of the number cited, accordihg to which the action di-
minishes in proportion as we depart from unison; or else that this action be-
comes suddenly energetic, which is scarcely admissible. It is very probable,
therefore, that the idea of ineffectual sounds, implied in the words, almost all ,
sounds, refers simply to sounds too far remote from that of the vein, which, in
virtue of the statement in question, must produce but an insensible action.

§ 21. It was said, § 15, that vibrations differing in period, within certain
limits, from those of the sound proper to the vein, may predominate over the
configurative forces in the generation of the incipient constrictions and dilata-
tions; that the transformation thus commenced is then completed after this new
manner, and that, consequently, the sound of the vein is reduced to unison
with that of the instrument. Now, the most favorable condition for the pro-
duction of this result must evidently be the contact of the sonorous instrument
with the walls of the vessel, because of the more immediate transmission of
the vibrations. And, in effect, while in the case of No. 10 of § 3, the phe-
nomenon can only be realized in an interval of a minor third, here, as we see
by No. 14 of the same paragraph, it extends to intervals of a fifth above its
principal sound and of more than an octave below; we may add that Savart
does not employ here, as in the former case, terms of little precision; he says
distinctly that the sound of the vein is reduced to unison with that of the in-
strument. 4

.§ 22. An upper limit, so high as the fifth, seems, at first glance, to be in
Opposition with certain results of our second series. In effect, for the sound
of the instrument to, ascend a fifth, it is necessary that the number of isolated
masses which strike, in a given. time, against the stretched membrane, should
increase in the ratio of 2 to 3, and that, consequently, (§ 2,) it should be so
likewise with the number of incipient divisions which pass, in the same time,
at the contracted section, and as, under a constant discharge, the length of the
incipient divisions is evidently in inverse ratio with this latter number, it fol-
lows that, from the principal sound to its fifth, the incipient divisions become
shortened in the ratio of 3 to 2; but we know (2d series, § 83) that when a
vein of water renders the sound proper to it, the length of its incipient divi-
sions is equal to 4.38 times the diameter of the contracted section ;* if, then,
by the sole action of a sonorous instrument, the sound of such a vein rises by
a fifth, the length of its incipient divisions will be reduced to 3 of the above
value; that is, to 2.92 times the diameter of the contracted section; now, this ©
number is a little inferior to the limit of stability of liquid cylinders, a limit
which, as has been shown, (2d series, § 46,) is comprised between 3 and 3.6,

*Such, at least, is the value of the ratio under moderate or strong discharges; under a
weak one, the meipient divisions taking, in virtue of the hypothesis of § 2, a less volume,
and cousequently a less length, the ratio would be also less. But we are led to the conclu-
sion ne an the experiments in question, the discharge employed by Savart was not of this

tter kind. .

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 327

and yet it was demonstrated (2d series, § 57) that when aliquid cylinder is
transformed, the length of its divisions cannot be less than that limit. ©

_ The difficulty is but apparent. The demonstration cited supposes that the
transformation.of the cylinder commences spontaneously, and then it is strictly
true; but it does not apply to the case in which the constrictions and dilata-
tions are originally formed by an extraneous cause sufficiently energetic. In
effect, the demonstration in question consists essentially in showing that if, in
the first phases of the transformation, we consider the sum of a constriction and
a dilatation—a sum whose length is equivalent to that of a division—all passes
m that portion of the cylinder as if its two bases were solid, so that the trans-
formation cannot be established spontaneously without a separation of those
bases at least equal to the limit of stability; but if, in a cylinder realized be-
tween two solid disks whose distance is a little less than the limit of stability,
the transformation could not commence of itself, it is clear that it will continue’
of itself if it has commenced from an extraneous cause which has accumulated
the liquid in a certain quantity towards one of the disks, so as to occasion arti-
ficially a dilatation and a constriction sufficiently decided, for evidently, at the
limit of stability, and in passing from beyond to within it, there is no sudden
transition from instability to an absolute stability. When that limit is passed,
the stability must at first be very feeble, since it parts from zero; consequently,
at but little distance within the limit, a deformation impressed artificially on
the cylinder can only be effaced spontaneously if it be small; if the deforma-
tion be considerable, it will proceed, 6n the contrary, spontaneously, and will
produce the disunion of the mass. The demonstration which we have recalled
can, therefore, be no longer cited when, in a liquid vein, the incipient constric-
tions and dilatations are formed by energetic vibrations. ‘Then, if the sum of
the lengths of one of these constrictions and one of these dilatations, or its
equal, the length of a division, is a little inferior to the limit of stability, the
transformation can commence after that anomalous mode, (?) and the more in-
tense the vibrations, the more will the last sound for which the possibility of
the phenomenon exists be elevated above the principal sound. If the extra-
neous sound is below the principal sound, and thus tends to give to the incipi-
ent divisions a length necessarily superior to the limit of stability, it will not
encounter the kind of resistance which has just been indicated within that
limit, so that the possibility of the phenomenon will extend much further; we
see, in effect, that in the experiments of Savart it embraces an interval of
more than an octave.

There is still another reason why the phenomenon should be less limited
below the principal sound than above: in the same sonorous instrument, the
amplitude of the vibrations increases generally with the gravity of the sound ;
but the more considerable the amplitude of the vibrations transmitted, the.
greater is the excess of liquid which each descending vibration tends to drive
into the vein to form an incipient dilatation, and the greater also is the with-
drawal of liquid which each ascending vibration tends to effect and thus.deepen
an incipient constriction. If, then, in proportion as the sound of the instru-
ment departs from the principal sound, whether below or above, the length of
the incipient divisions which the vibrations tend to form becomes more and
more superior or more and more inferior to that of the incipient divisions which
the configurative forces tend on their part to form, and if thence there evi-
dently arises a conflict of progressive intensity with these latter forces, on the
other hand, below the principal sound, the vibrations act mor2 and more ener- ,
getically to cause the new mode of transformation to prevail, and this augmen-
tation of action must more or less countervail the augmentation of the conflict.

We may remark here, that in the case of a sound very grave relatively to
the principal sound, the new mode of transformation is not established after
the same manner as in the case of a sound which does not much deviate from

398. THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

the principal sound ; in the latter case, in effect, because of the little difference
of length between the incipient divisions of the two kinds, it is quite probable
that the configurative forces simply modify their proper action, as has been
already said in § 15, by elongating or shortening the incipient divisions which
correspond with them, so as to make them coincide with those which corre-
spond with the vibrations; but when the sound of the instrument is sufficiently
erave for the length of these last divisions to surpass considerably that of the
others, when, for example, the instrument renders the grave octave, and the
vibrations transmitted are sufficiently intense to impress upon the vein their
mode of transformation, it must be admitted that the action of the configurative
forces is completely destroyed, so that there is no longer a modification of the
first mode, which adapts itself to the second, but an absolute substitution of
the second for the first.

§ 23. Experiment fully verifies what has been said above of the variations
of stability within and near the limit, in a liquid cylinder adhering to solid bases.
A horizontal cylinder of oil was formed, in the interior of the alcoholic mixture,
between two disks* whose diameter was 31 millimetres and their distance 87
millimetres; the ratio of length to the diameter was therefore, in this cylinder,
equal to 2.8, so that the figure was quite stable; this ratio, we see, deviated
somewhat more from the limit than that which we found, in the preceding para-
graph, to pertain to the incipient divisions of a vein of water brought by the
action of a sonorous instrument to render the sharp fifth of the principal sound.
In order to alter artificially the cylindrieal form of the mass, the point of the
small syringe was moved slowly, and at several intervals, along the upper part
of the liquid figure, starting from one of the disks and stopping at very nearly
the middle of their interval; the oil thus accumulates in greater quantity towards
the other disk, and, during this whole operation, the figure ceases not to regu-
late itself spontaneously in relation to its axis; that is to say, it remains one of
revolution, so as to present a constriction and a dilatation analogous to those
which result from a spontaneous alteration. Now, so long as the versed sine
of the meridian are of the dilatation was less than about 5 millimetres, the mass,
it left to itself, gradually recovered the cylindrical form; but when the sine
in question attained 5 millimetres, the mass left free continued spontaneously
to change its form and ended by disuniting.

In this experiment, the artificial deformation necessary to determine the spon-
taneous continuation of the phenomenon is considerable; for when, by approxi-
mate measurement, the versed sine of the meridian arc of the dilatation was 5
millimetres, that of the meridian are of the constriction was 8 millimetres, so
that the respective diameters of the neck of the constriction and of the equator
of the dilatation were 15 and 41 millimetres; and hence the first was scarcely
more than the third of the second; but let it be remembered that the ratio be-
tween the length and the diameter of the cylinder was below that which, in the
vein, corresponds to the fifth of the principal sound.t Moreover, there are two
other reasons why the passage of the sound of the vein to the sharp fifth should
be induced by vibrations which occasion directly a deformation much less de-
cided. In the first place, from the immediate action of the vibrations, the de-
formation must increase by the acquired velocities, (§ 6;) and in the second
place, the divisions, and consequently the constrictions and dilatations, being
elongated during their descent, (§ 2 42s,) the sum of the lengths of a constric-
tion and a dilatation, inferior at first to the limit of stability, begins imme-

* These disks were maintained by a system similar to that represented in Fig. 27 of the
second series.

t this ratio, but for an error in the construction of the small apparatus, would have been
2.92.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 329

diately to approach that limit, so that the progress of the transformation after
the anomalous mode originally impressed becomes more facile.

§ 24. Thus the theory accounts for all the phenomena resulting from the
action of vibrations on veins ejected in a descending vertical, for all those at
least which Savart describes in a precise manner. We pass to veins ejected in
other directions. And first, since, in these veins, there is equally a transform-
ation into isolated masses, sounds must necessarily exert on them an influence -
analogous to that which they exert on veins ejected vertically from above down-
wards; No. 15 of § 3 has therefore no need of explanation,

§ 25. But this is not the case with No. 16. If all the divisions, on attaining
one after the other the extremity of the continuous part, became isolated in
identically the same manner, and if all the masses parted from thence with the
velocity precisely corresponding to the movement of translation of the liquid
at that point, these latter would all describe exactly the same trajectory, and
then the discontinuous part of the vein could present no dispersion or sheaf-
like jet ; there are irregularities, then, as Savart remarks, in the emission of
the isolated masses of the extremity of the continuous part; yet these irregu-
larities must be very small, as the sheaf has no great extent. I had- thought
at first that they proceeded from the same causes with those which were con-
sidered in § 10. But if that were so, the suppression of the extraneous aetion
would cause the sheaf to disappear and thus reduce the whole vein to a single
jet; but this is what experiment has not confirmed: by employing, in regard
to such a vein, the means used by Savart in the case of descending vertical
veins—that is to say, by receiving the discontinuous part on a thick board, suita-
bly inclined, and by placing soft bodies under the vessel from which the vein
issues, under that in which it is received, and under the supports, I have not
succeeded in producing any considerable diminution of the sheaf. We must
infer from this that the irregularities are not owing to the vibratory move-
ments, and that, consequently, they affect the action itself of the configurative
forces. We perceive, in effect, that, considering the nature of the phenomenon
of transformation, even slight disturbing causes must have an influence on the
perfect identity of all the divisions which arise one after the other at the con-
tracted section; we have seen, for example, in the experiments of §§ 50 to 55
of the 2d series, an extraneous cause alters the equality of length of the divi-
sions of a cylinder. This premised, we proceed to show that small differences
of this nature in the incipient divisions of a vein, ejected under a suitable ob-
liquity, must necessarily give rise to a certain dispersion of the discontinuous

art. Us
r Let us consider particularly two of the constrictions with the dilatation
which they comprise between them. As we have seen, each of these two con-
strictions, at first very feebly indicated on quitting the contracted section, after-
wards deepens gradually in-the transit of the continuous part, by transferring
half of its liquid to the dilatation; this then receives, by its anterior extremity,
a portion of the liquid which is driven in a direction contrary to the movement
of translation, and, by its posterior extremity, a portion which is driven in the
same direction with that movement, so that its velocity of translation tends to
be diminished by the first and increased by the second of these accessions.
Now, although these two opposite actions are in general unequal, because the
anterior constriction is, at each instant, in a little more advanced phase of
transformation than the posterior, yet if the two constrictions were perfectly |
identical at their respective inceptions, and if, in the sequel, they have under-
. gone identically, though not precisely at the same instant, the same modifica-
tions until their respective ruptures, it is evident that after these two ruptures,
that is to say, at the moment when the dilatation exists in the state of an iso-
lated mass, the sum of the quantities of movement supplied to this mass b
the anterior constriction will have been absolutely compensated by that of the

230 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

quantities of movement which have been supplied, in the other direction, by
the’ posterior constriction, and that hence this mass will quit the continuous
part with the velocity exactly corresponding to the general movement of trans-
lation. . But it is clear that the compensation will be no longer entire if the
two constrictions differed in their inception; if, for example, they were unequal
in length: it results from the less duration of the transformation when the
divisions are longer, (2d series, § 66,) and when, consequently, the constric-
tions are longer, that the more elongated of the constrictions in question will
deepen more rapidly than the other, and as, in virtue of its excess of length,
it comprises more liquid, it will convey into the dilatation a greater afflux of
material with greater velocities, and consequently a greater quantity of move-
ment. If, then, this constriction is the posterior one, the mass will quit the
contracted section with an excess of velocity, and if the anterior, with a defect
of velocity. Thus, slight differences of length in the incipient constrictions
will result in establishing small inequalities in the velocities of the successive
isolated masses; but these masses will then, necessarily, traverse parabolas
of unequal amplitude, and will, consequently, be spread out in a vertical plane,
thus forming the sheaf.

This explanation supposes that the disturbing causes do not produce, in the
constrictions, any irregularity in directions perpendicular to the axis of the
vein; and we are led, in effect, to conclude, from the experiment of § 23, that
the constrictions and dilatations tend with great force to a symmetry in rela-
tion to the axis, and that hence irregularities in a direction perpendicular to
this latter cannot be persistent. It is clear, also, from this explanation that
there are two extreme limits for which the dispersion is necessarily null,
namely, when the vein is ejected vertically from above downwards and verti-
cally from below upwards, since, in these two cases, all the isolated masses
perform the same rectilinear trajectory ;* if, therefore, we pass from the first
to the second by gradually varying the direction in which the jet is thrown,
the sheaf cannot begin to show itself in a very distinct manner except on
attaining a certain angle between that direction and the descending vertical,
and it will cease to be very distinguishable beyond a certain other angle.
Moreover, so long as the vein is thrown in directions descending obliquely, and
even in a horizontal direction, it will be readily conceived that at the extremity.
of its continuous part, a part which is generally of quite considerable length,
it will already approach too nearly to the vertical to allow a very clearly
marked sheaf, so that the first direction which will begin to render the sheaf
distinct will be one ascending obliquely. All these conclusions are in accord-
ance with the facts of the number we are considering.

We admit, it will be seen, that the inequalities. between the incipient con-
strictions do not depend on the direction in which the jet is thrown; and there
is no plausible reason, in effect, for attributing these inequalities to the ascend-
ing obliquity of the jet. If we have not spoken of them in treating of veins
descending vertically, it is because, in the latter veins, they cannot give rise
to any appearance of a peculiar kind; they then do no more than evidently a
little augment, in the axis of the vein, the inexactness of the superposition of
the individual systems of expansions and nodes, and thus simply constitute an
influence to be added to those mentioned in § 10. As to the nature of the dis-
turbing causes which produce the inequalities in question, it would doubtless
be difficult to discover it; but, whatever it be, the dispersion of the discon-
tinuous part in veins directed under a suitable angle reveals to us the presence
of those causes.

* In a vein ejected vertically from below upwards, the liquid scatters, it is true, in falling
back, but I need not remark that this latter dispersion is owing to a wholly different cause,
and has nothing in common with the phenomena we are considering.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. — 331 |

§ 26. Now, a vein being projected under such an angle that the sheaf shall
be well formed, let us submit it to the influence of a sonorous instrument. The
sound which will most shorten the continuous part will still be evidently that
whose vibrations succeed one another at the same intervals which the constric-
tions and dilatations due to the configurative forces (§§ 5 and 12) observe in
their passage at the contracted section. But these vibrations being perfectly
regular and isochronous, they will prevent, if they have sufficient intensity,
the disturbing causes from modifying the incipient constrictions; in other terms,
in influencing the transformation, they will impart to it their own regularity, so
that all the incipient constrictions will have the same length, and henee all
the isolated masses will follow identically the same trajectory (§ preceding ;)
under the influence of this sound the sheaf will disappear, and the whole of
the vein be reduced to a single jet presenting a very regular system of expan-_
sions and nodes.

§ 27. As to the singular effects of reduction of the sheaf to two or three jets
under the influence of other sounds, it would be necessary, in order to attempt
an explanation, to know the relations of the sounds in question with the princi-
pal ones—relations which Savart nowhere indicates. But as these phenomena
are not the least curious of those which result from the action of vibrations on
liquid veins, I have decided to attempt this investigation.

The orifice I employed had a diameter of 5 millimetres; it was pierced in
the centre of a circular plate of brass of 12 centimetres diameter,* so inclined
that the jet might be projected at an angle of about 35° above the horizontal ;
this plate formed one of the bases of a cylindrical drum which communicated
by a horizontal tube, wide and short, with the lower part of one of Mariotte’s
large vases; the discharge was of 34 centimetres, the sonorous instrument was
a violoncello, the base of which was made to rest on the supports of the ap-
paratus.

The’ sheaf being well developed, the attempt was made in the first place to
ascertain by approaches the principal sound, or, in other words, that which pre-
cisely reduced the whole vein to a single jet with a regular system of expan-
sions and nodes, and which, at the same time, caused the first expansion to arise
very near the orifice. This point being attained, the sound of the instrument
was raised by successive semi-tones. Under the influence of the vibrations
thus communicated, the jet first lost its regularity, next the sheaf gradually
reappeared, and afterwards was maintained without being reduced to either two
or three jets. A return was then made to the principal sound, and from that
point the sound of the instrument was caused to descend, likewise by semi-
tones. The same effects, the alteration, namely, of the regularity of the jet
and the progressive reappearance of the sheaf, were now manifested; but, on
approaching the grave octave, a tendency to the change of the sheaf into a
double jet was remarked, and when this last sound was reached, the sheaf was
distinctly replaced by two jets with regular systems of expansions and nodes.
The sound continued to be lowered, and the two jets still to appear, until the
third below the grave octave was attained ; still lower, and so long as the double
grave octave was not reached, sometimes two and sometimes three jets were
obtained ; the fifth, however, sometimes -yielded a single jet; finally, for the
double grave octave, three jets were constantly observed. In all these cases,
the jets continued each to have its system of expansions and nodes.

These facts are less restricted than those stated in No. 16 of § 3; according
to that number, in which the purport of Savart’s expressions is reproduced, it

* A diameter so considerable was employed from the necessity of leaving sufficient liberty
to the vibrations of the plate. Without that liberty, the vibrations of the liquid which flows
towards the orifice would be impeded, and would hence lose some of their action on the vein.

aoz THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

would be only under the influence of the principal sound that the sheaf would
be contracted into a single jet, and there would be only two other definite and
different sounds which would cause to appear respectively two and three dis-
tinct jets. But the absence of an indication of the relation between these sounds
and the principal one suffices to show that Savart has not given close atten-
tion to the phenomena of this kind, and that after having observed them in
isolated cases, he did not inquire whether they were susceptible of extension.

§ 28. Let us see now if the theory will account for these phenomena. We
will begin with the grave octave. For this sound, the duration of a vibration
is double that of the passage of a constriction or a dilatation at the contracted
section, whence we may conclude without hesitation that the divisions which
would originate under the sole action of the grave octave of the principal sound
would be double the length of those which would be produced by the isolated ~
action of the configurative forces. From this we may admit that each of the
former comprises exactly the sum of two of the latter; for in this way, at all
the sections which terminate these sums or couples there is evidently an abso-
lute concurrence between the two kinds of action, the sections in question con-
stituting at once the centres of the constrictions which would result from the
vibrations, and centres of the constrictions due to the configurative forces.
Now, let us examine what will pass, during the transformation, in any one of
these couples of divisions. The couple being composed of two entire divisions,
contains two dilatations which comprise between them a constriction, and is
terminated by two semi-constrictions. Now, while the entire constrictions to
which these terminations pertain are, as we have seen, favored by the vyibra-
tions, it is plain that the intermediate constriction is, on the contrary, in con-
flict, since its middle, which is the middle of the couple, corresponds to the
middle of the division which the vibrations tend to produce, and consequently
to the middle of the dilatation of the latter; thus each of the dilatations which
the configurative forces give rise to in the vein is adjacent to two dilatations
unequally solicited. Moreover, the constrictions favored by the vibrations must
be elongated under their influence, since the constrictions which the latter would
of themselves produce would have a length twice greater, and:as the length
of each of the couples of divisions above considered remains the same as in the
absence of the sound of the instrument, it follows that the constrictions inter-
mediate to the preceding, that is, those which occupy the middle of the couples
and which are in conflict with the vibrations, must be shortened. We may
therefore admit that the favored constrictions, although, from the beginning,
they are more slender than the constriction in conflict, still contain, because of
their excess of length, more liquid than the latter; and since, for the double
reason that they are longer and are accelerated by the vibrations, they arrive
more rapidly at their rupture, we perceive that they will transmit to the dilata-
tions more matter with more velocity, and consequently a greater quantity of
movement. All the dilatations will thus be found in the condition analyzed in
§ 25, and consequently the isolated masses, on abandoning the continuous part,
will have some a small excess of velocity and the others a small deficit of ve-
locity. But here the vibrations, imparting their regularity to the phenomena,
render all the favored constrictions, at their origin, identical among themselves,
and in like manner render identical among themselves all the constrictions in
conflict, so that all the masses formed by the dilatations which, in the line of
the continuous part, have behind them a favored constriction, leave with the same
excess of velocity and consequently describe the same trajectory, and all the
masses which proceed from dilatations having a favored constriction before them,
leave with the deficit of velocity and also describe the same trajectory ; hence,
under the influence of the grave octave of the principal sound, the sheaf ought
to be replaced by two separate jets.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 333

Yet it would not be impossible that the sound under consideration might
eause the sheaf to disappear; in effect, this sound being already very grave,
at least in regard to the vein upon which I operated, its vibrations have much
amplitude, and might (§ 22) act with sufficient energy to prevent the formation
of the constrictions in conflict, and thus leave in the vein only the divisions
which they tend of themselves to produce, in which case all the isolated masses
would necessarily have the same velocity, namely, the normal velocity.

Let us examine, in'the second place, the influence of the grave fifth of the
preceding sound, or, in other words, of the double grave fifth of the principal
sound. ‘The vibrations of this double fifth being three times less rapid than
those of the principal sound, it may readily be concluded that each of the
divisions which they tend of themselves to occasion in the vein comprises
exactly three of the divisions due to the configurative forces. We see, more-
over, that, of the three dilatations contained in this assemblage of divisions,
the last has behind it a favored constriction and before a constriction in con-
flict, while the foremost has, on the contrary, before it a favored constriction
and behind a constriction in conflict, and, finally, that the intermediate one is
between these two constrictions in conflict, which are identical with one another
at their respective origms. Hence the quantities of movement will necessarily
be distributed, in the isolated masses proceeding from these three divisions, in
such manner that the last will quit the continuous part with a velocity superior
to the normal velocity, the foremost will acquire a velocity inferior to this
normal velocity, and the intermediate will quit with the normal velocity itself;
and as, still on account of the perfect regularity of the vibrations, the circum-
stances are identically the same in each of the systems of three divisions, there
can be, in the discontinuous part, but three different velocities. If, then, the
action of the vibrations do not mask entirely that which, before its influence,
the configurative forces freely exerted, the sheaf will be resolved into three
distinct jets; and if, on the contrary, the action of the configurative forces is
completely controlled, which ought to take place even more easily than for
the grave octave, on account of the still greater amplitude of the vibrations,
there will be but one jet, as we have shown to be the case above.

As to the separation into two jets, under the influence also of the double
grave fifth, a result which experiment equally yields, we can account for it in
the following manner: When the action of the vibrations is preponderant, and
there arise, at the contracted section, only the divisions which it determines,
these have a greater length, since each of them occupies the place of three of
the divisions which the configurative forces would form; but we know (2d
series, § 55) that every liquid figure, of which one dimension is considerable
relatively to the two others, tends to separation into isolated masses; we can
conceive, then, that in the divisions in question, if the acquired transverse
velocities are not sufficient to oppose it, there may be new configurative forces
developed which separate each of these divisions into two others by hollowing
out a constriction in its middle, and, as all constrictions thus produced are
evidently in conflict, the reasoning employed in regard to the grave octave
shows that we ought then to obtain two jets.

Let us remark here, that the anomalous configurative forces, to which we
have just had reference, could ferm, in each large division, only one constric-
tion; if they formed two, which would separate each large division into three
small ones, these would have the same length with the divisions of the vein
not submitted to the influence of the sonorous instrument; but, for this to be
possible, it would be necessary that the new divisions should not experience
more resistance in their formation than in the absence of ail extraneous action;
for we may conclude from what takes place in cylinders (2d series, §§ 58 and
59) that, in every liquid figure, more or less analogous, the length of the divi-

334 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

ee
sions increases with the resistance; now, the acquired transverse velocities
causing, in our large divisions, a tendency te persevere in the mode of trans-
formation impressed by the vibrations, constitute a resistance to any further
separation. j

We pass, in the third place, to the double grave octave. Here, each of the
divisions which would arise under the sole action of the vibrations, would evi-
dently comprise four of the divisions which would result from the configurative
forces alone. Now, if these two actions were combined, if would seem that we
should have four distinct jets; for it is easy to see that in the three constric-
tions which would then be formed, the conflict would be unequal; that it would
be stronger for the middle constriction than for the two others, so that each of
the two dilatations comprised between these three constrictions would receive
from the two sides unequal quantities of movement, and that the differences,
in fine, would be greater for the two extreme dilatations, each of which would
be comprised between a constriction in conflict and a favored constriction.
But, on the one hand, the vibrations in question having a considerable ampli-
tude, we can understand that their action must always efface that of the con-
figurative forces, and, on the other hand, the divisions formed in this manner
being very long, we equally perceive, from what has been said above, that new
configurative forces must be generated which would effect the separation ; now,
by reason of the resistance also indicated above, this separation should here
yield but three parts at most, which, in view of the distribution of conflicts
and concurrences, and the regulating action of the vibrations, must convert the
sheaf into three jets only.

There remains, in the fourth place, the action of the sounds comprised be-
tween the grave octave and the fifth below, and between the latter and the
double grave octave. For these sounds, there is no longer any simple relation
between the lengths of the divisions which would result respectively from the
vibrations alone and from the configurative forces alone; but it will be admitted
without difficulty that, under the influence of those which approach, whether
above or below, the double grave fifth, and in the case where the effect of the
vibrations is not completely substituted for that of the configurative forces, the
divisions due to these forces are a little shortened or elongated, so as to allow,
at the limits which separate the successive systems of three of these divisions,
the absolute concurrence of the two kinds of action, and thus to re-establish .
the simple ratio of 3 to 1 pertaining to the double fifth; whence the resolution
into three jets. Under this same influence, as under that of the double fifth,
if the vibrations are preponderant, but not sufficiently so to oppose an ulterior
development of configurative forces, each large division can be but separated
into two, so that the discontinuous part of the vein shall present but two jets.
It will be also admitted that the sounds .nearest to the grave octave will cause
the mode related to this latter to prevail, and that in this case also the sheaf
will never change except into two jets. As regards the sounds which do not
depart too much from the double grave octave, the vibrations have always suf-
ficient amplitude, and consequently sufiicient action, to overpower the ordinary
configurative forces, and at the same time the divisions to which they give rise
are always sufliciently long to admit of each of them subsequently undergoing
a separation, which divides it at most into three, and may also separate it into
but two, if it encounters a greater resistance on the part of the vibrations; and
hence two jets or three. As to the systems of expansions and nodes which
are observed in each of the jets, they are plainly a consequence of the acquired
transverse velocities which proceed from the action of the vibrations.

§ 29. It may be asked why, above the principal sound and between that and
its grave octave, no sound, with the exception of those which approximate to
these two last, had occasioned, in the experiments described in § 27, anything

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 335

analogous to the phenomena which we have just been considering? in effect,
for the simple grave fifth of the principal sound, by way of example, it will
readily be seen that the length occupied by the sum of two of the divisions
due to the vibrations alone would be equal to that occupied by the sum of three
divisions due to the configurative forces, so that by imagining these two sums
superposed and combined, there would be a concurrence in the two constric-
tions of which the terminations of the system would constitute a part, and con-
flict in the two intermediate constrictions pertaining to the second of the two
sums under consideration; and since these two conflicts would be equal, we
might expect, agreeably to our theory, to see the sheaf give place to three jets ;
and we might also expect, for analogous reasons, the manifestation of three jets
under the influence of the fourth sharp, and of two jets under that of the fifth
sharp of the principal sound. ,

But, by our theory, the appearance of one, two, or three jets in place of the
sheaf supposes, as we have seen to be the case, that the vibrations communi-
cated to the liquid should regulate what passes in the vein, and this requires
that they should have an energy of action capable of neutralizing the effect of
the disturbing causes which tend to establish, in the successive constrictions as
they arise, inequalities of length not symmetrically distributed; now, all things
being otherwise equal, the action of the vibrations on the vein decreasing with
the amplitude of these vibrations, we can conceive that above the grave octave
ef the principal sound this action may simply be insufficient, and that if it had
been possible to augment, by a more immediate transmission or by a better dis-
position of the system of the orifice, the amplitude of the vibrations communi-
cated, the three sounds indicated above would have ceased to show themselves
inactive in regard to the sheaf. ‘This will become evident, if we observe that
the vibrations act on veins projected obliquely in the same manner as on veins
directed vertically from above downwards, and if we recall that, in the experi-
ments of Savart mentioned in No. 14, § 3, and explained in §§ 21 and 22, ex-
periments in which everything was so arranged as to give great intensity to
the vibrations communicated, the mode of transformation imparted by these
last was completely substituted for that of the contigurative forces, even as re-
gards sounds extending to the fifth sharp of the principal sound.

We have spoken of the possible influence of a change in the system of the
orifice, and this because the orifice employed in my experiments was pierced in
a very thin plate, (being but about half a millimetre in thickness,) and hence
this plate vibrated, perhaps with difficulty, in unison with sounds not having a
certain degree of gravity.

§ 30. We have now, in order to finish the theoretical examination of the
influence exerted by vibratory movements on liquid veins, only to show the
connexion of the theory with the facts of No. 17, of § 3.

Since the principal sound is also that (§§ 5, 12, and 26) for which the dura-
tion of a vibration is equal to the duration of a constriction or a dilatation at the
contracted section, and sincé, from experiment, the number of vibrations cor-
responding to that sound proportionally diminishes as the direction in which
the jet is thrown departs from the descending vertical, the same is necessarily
the case with the number of incipient constrictions and dilatations, and conse-
quently with the number of incipient divisions. But, as the velocity of dis-
charge of the liquid is obviously independent of the direction of that discharge,
the number of divisions which originate in a given time can only decrease
notably by an augmentation in the length of these incipient divisions ; hence,
with the same discharge and the same orifice, the incipient divisions continue
to lengthen in proportion as the direction of the emission of the vein departs
more from the descending vertical. Now, this result is directly deducible from
the hypothesis of § 2. In effect, while a vein directed vertically from above

336 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

downwards terids to grow more slender by reason of the acceleration of the
movement due to gravity, a vein directed vertically from below upwards, on
the contrary, tends to grow thicker on account of the retardation due to gravity;
and since, according to the hypothesis in question, the progressive attenuation
of the vein directed from above downwards occasions, by virtue of the recip-
rocal dependence (solidarité) of the divisions, a diminution of length in the
incipient divisions, the thickening of the vein directed from below upwards
must, for the same reason, occasion an augmentation of length in the incipient
divisions; whence it follows that, when the direction of the emission of the
vein passes progressively from the first of these cases to the second, the inci-
pient divisions will continue gradually to grow longer.

As is seen by the number under discussion, from the direction of the descend-
ing vertical of the vein to the horizontal direction, the lowering of the principal
sound is inconsiderable, but it becomes considerable from the horizontal direc-
tion to that of the ascending vertical, which implies that the same shall be the
case with the lengthening of the incipient divisions. Now, this fact also flows
from the hypothesis of § 2: in effect, the vertically ascending vein tends to be
much more thickened, especially towards its upper extremity, on account of the
gradual annulment of the velocity of the liquid, than the vertically descending
vein tends to become slender at an equal distance from the contracted section ;
consequently, and still in virtue of the solidarity of the divisions, when the vein,
thrown at first in the horizontal direction, continues approaching the ascending
vertical direction, the suecessive augmentations in length of the incipient divi-
sions must become much greater than when the vein, quitting the vertically
descending direction, attains by degrees the horizontal direction.

‘The facts observed, being thus connected in a necessary manner with the
hypothesis of § 2, serve reciprocally for confirmation of the latter, and it was to
them that we had allusion when we said (§ 2) that this hypothesis was sustained
by the results of experiment.

§ 31. In terminating the second series, we announced that in the present one,
after completing what relates to liquid veins, we should treat of figures of equi-
librium other than the sphere and cylinder, but in order not to give too much
extension to this memoir, we have decided to reserve the latter subject for an-
other occasion.

Novre.—Since the publication of our theory of the constitution of liquid veins,
as explained at the end of the previous series, the discussion of such veins has
formed the subject of several successive publications, which we propose briefly
to recall.

In 1849 M. Hagen presented to the Academy of Berlin a memoir on the disks
which are formed at the meeting of two liquid veins, and on the resolution of
isolated liquid veins into drops, (Poggendortft’s Annalen, vol. lxxviii p. 451.) The
experiments made by the author on isolated veins conduct him to a law, in re-
gard to the relations between the length of the continuous part, the discharge
and the diameter of the orifice, which does not seem to him to coincide with
those of Savart. We are convinced that the disagreement is but apparent. In
fact, Savart has only given his laws as approximative; and besides, as we have
shown, (2d series, § 80,) these laws only constitute limits which the results of
experiment approach the more closely as, for a definite orifice, the least of the
discharges employed is stronger, and as, for a less but definite discharge, the
orifice is smaller. As to the phenomenon of the resolution into isolated masses,
M. Hagen, who could have no knowledge of our theory, the latter having been
then too lately published, hazards the conjecture that this resolution is probably
attributable to the capillary forces.

*
WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 537

In 1851, M. Billet-Selis published, in the Annales de Chimie et de Physique,
(t. xxxi, p. 326,) a notice on the means of observing the constitution of liquid
veins. He there describes two different processes: the first is that which was
indicated some time ago by myself for the observation of rapid periodical move-
ments, the employment, namely, of a revolving disk pierced with narrow slits,
equidistant and in the direction of the radii; the second, which is an ingenious
- modification of that of Savart, consists in producing, by help of a large concave
mirror, a real and inverted image of the vein, under such an arrangement that
the vein and its image shall appear confounded. I will recall, in this connex-
ion, another process, communicated in 1846 to the Academy of Sciences at
Paris by M. Matteucci, (Comptes Rendus, vol. xxii, p. 260,) which is a happy ap-
plication of that devised by M. Wheatstone, for the case of rapid movements:
it consists in illuminating the vein by a strong electric spark.

A memoir entitled Nouvelle Theorie del’ Ecoulement des Liquides was presented
to the Academy of Sciences of Paris, (February 26, 1855,) by M. Dejean, but
is generally known only by a short analysis, which we owe to the author him-
self, and which was inserted in the scientific journals; this treats, among other
subjects, of the constitution of liquid veins projected from circular orifices, and
of the action exerted on them by vibratory movements. M. Dejean admits,
for the case in which the vein is withdrawn from all extraneous action, the ex-
istence of the pulsations which Savart supposed to be produced at the orifice
by the efflux itself, and he seeks to explain these pulsations, the laws relating
to their number, and a part of the phenomena which depend on the influence
of sounds. The analysis in question makes no mention of our theory.

Still another memoir, entitled Recherches Hydrauliques, was presented, about
the same time, by M. Magnus, to the Academy of Berlin, (Poggendorff’s An-
nalen, vol. xcv, p. 1.) The author occupies himself chiefly with the phenomena
which are manifested when two veins meet under certain angles, and with the
different aspects assumed by veins which issue from orifices of different forms ;
but he speaks also of the constitution of veins escaping from circular orifices
and of the influence of sounds. M. Magnus, who likewise makes no mention
of our theory, attributes the separation of the masses which compose the dis-
continuous part to the increasing inequality of the velocities of two contiguous
hotizontal strata of the liquid of the vein. As to the manner in which the
sounds act, the little that he says reverts to the idea of Savart of which we
have ourselves made use in the present series, that, namely, of successive com-
pressions and tractions exerted by the vibrations, but he combines it with his
own opinion on the formation of the discontinuous part.

Inasmuch as the theory which we have developed at the close of the second
series is not based, as regards its fundamental principles, on hypothetical con-
siderations, but is the necessary consequence of results of experiment; as it
gives an explanation of all the details and of all the laws of the constitution
of veins projected from circular orifices and not subjected to the influence of
vibratory movements; as the present series, finally, renders equally an account
of all the phenomena occasioned by this last influence, we have thought it use-
less to enter into any discussion in regard to the above theories.

22 8

*
33% . FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

FOURTH SERIES.
Figures of equilibrium of revolution, other than the sphere and the cylinder.

§ 1. The preceding series having completed the theoretical study of the liquid
vein, we return to liquid masses withdrawn from the action of gravity, and pro-

ose to prosecute the examination of figures of equilibrium of revolution.

Let it be remembered, in the first place, that if we designate by R and R’
the two principal radii of curvature at the same point of the free surface of a
liquid mass virtually without weight, and by C a constant, the expression of
the general condition which such a surface should satisfy in a state of equili-

briuam is (2d series, § 5) atpae: an expression in which R and R’ are

positive when they pertain to convex curvatures, or, in other words, when they
are directed to the interior of the mass, and negative in the opposite case; let
it be also remembered that this equation is a simple transformation of that
which implies that the pressure exerted by the liquid on itself, in virtue of the
mutual attraction of its molecules, does not change from one point to another
of the surface of the mass, (2bid. ;) and be it remembered, lastly, that, accord-
ing to a known property of surfaces of revolution, if the figure of equilibrium
pertains to that class, one of the radii R and RY is the radius of curvature of
the meridian line at the point under consideration, and the other is the portion
of the perpendicular comprised between the point in question and the axis of
revolution, or, as may be expressed more simply, the perpendicular to that -
ojnt.

é In this case, that is, in the case of surfaces of revolution, the preceding ex-
pression, put in the differential form, is completely integrable by elliptical func-
tions, so that the forms of the meridian lines may be deduced from it, and it is
this which M. Beer has proposed to do in a recent memoir,* in which, for the
second time, he has done me the honor of applying the calculus to the results
of my experiments; and, besides this, a property discovered by M. Delaunayt
by means of the calculus, and since demonstrated geometrically by M. La-
marle,t enables us to attain the same object without having recourse to ellipti-
cal functions. We shall speak, in a proper place, of these resources of analysis
and geometry; but, in the present series, we purpose to arrive at the forms of
the meridian lines, at all their modifications and all their details, by a reliance
upon experiment and by availing ourselves of simple reasoning applied to the
relation which the equation of equilibrium establishes between the radius of
curvature and the perpendicular. Our undertaking, in which experiment and
theory will proceed side by side, may thus serve as a verification of the latter.

To avoid all ambiguity, we will replace the letters R and R’ by the letters
M and N, the first of which will be understood to designate that one of the
two principal radii of curvature which pertains to the meridian line, and the
second that which constitutes the normal or perpendicular; so that, as regards

figures of revolution, the general equation of equilibrium will be, aty=e-

§ 2. This notation being adopted, we shall proceed, first, to demonstrate that
the sphere is the only figure of equilibrium of revolution whose meridian line
meets the axis. ‘To this we may add the plane, if we consider it as the limit
of spheres, or as the surface generated by a right line perpendicular to the axis.

*Tractatus de Theoria Mathematica Phenomenorum in Liquidis Actiont Gravitatis De-
tractis Observatorum. Bonn, 1857.

tSur la Surface de Revolution dont la Courbure Moyenne est Constante. Journal de M.
Liouville, 1841, t. vi, p. 309. :

+ Theorie Geometrique des Rayons et Centres de Courbure. Bulletin de l’Acad., 1857, 2d
series.

|

* WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 339

Let us conceive a figure of equilibrium of revolution not being either a
sphere or a plane, and whose meridian line meets the axis. I maintain, in the
first place, that this line can attain the axis only perpendicularly. In effect, if
it intersected it obliquely, or if it were a tangent to it, the perpendicular would

be null at the point of intersection or of contact, and the quantity se would

become infinite at that point,* while it would be of finite value at neighboring

* There is one case, however, in which this reasoning would seem not to be applicable.
We may conceive a curve such that, at the point where it meets the axis, the radius of curva-
ture would be null, and that in the neighborhood of this point the radius of curvature and

the perpendicular would be of opposite signs; then the quantity a +5 would constitute a

difference, of which both terms would at once become infinite at the point situated on the
axis, and it is not apparent, at the first glance, that this difference might not remain finite.
We have to demonstrate, therefore, that the thing is in§possible if the curve does not meet
the axis normally. For that purpose, but only in this case, we shall be obliged to make use
of the known expressions of the radius of curvature and of the perpendicular in functions of ©
differential coefficients.

If we take the axis of revolution as axis of the abscissee, we shall have p and gq, respect-
ively the ditferential coefficients of the first and second order of y relatively to xz:

1 2 3
q
N=y (1+ 2)? Deli erie alolsl Sol osese sige eke Sele Uaieing 1 (2)
whence we deduce, for the relation of the two terms of the first member of the equation of
equilibrium : a
¢ salt
N 1+ 7?
—=— Mes eR 5 ales Ph gent ais A uh ae Lu sen ps dl (Gh
fal ae (3)
M

Now, let y=/f (x) be the equation of the meridian line. Taking as origin of the co-ordinates
the point where this line meets the axis, so that for co we have yo, we can then sup-
pose the function f(x) developed in a series of ascending and positive powers of z; and if
we assume that the curve meets the axis under an angle other than a right angle, which re-

quires that, for =o, the first differential coefficient should be finite or null, it will be neces-

sary that the exponent of zx, in the first term of the series, should be unity. Let us remark
here that, having only to consider the curve at the point where it reaches the axis and at
points very near, we may always consider z extremely small, so that, in relation to this por-
tion of the curve, our series will be necessarily convergent. Let us say, then:

ee le ce eee ey a enn See are oe eae ete oe (4)
an equation in which the exponents m m.... are positive and greater than unity. Conse-
quently we shall have:

ae] MO ED ee eG a eee eiocls Jee ICL ok OR

mn (mL) Oe te entra aN PS a ek

The first of these expressions, when we make therein xo, is reduced to p=a, so that
the curve meets the axis under a finite angle, but other than a right angle, or under an angle
null, according as we suppose the constant a finite or equal to zero. Then, if we assume
that at the point situated on the axis the radius of curvature is null, we see, by formula (1, )
that in this same point g must be infinite, and, in virtue of the second of the above expres-
sions; this condition will be satisfied if the first, at least, of the exponents mn-.... be less
than 2.

Let us now introduce into the formula (3) these same expressions of p and qg and that
of y. There will result:

1
‘ih A Mi UN el a le ale aa
1 (m(m—1) b2™—? fn (n—1) co®*— $f -.--) (ae Foe caf...)
M

and we readily see that, for zo, this ratio becomes infinite. Then, in effect, since the
quantities m m.... are all greater than unity, on the one hand the numerator is reduced to
1-- a?— that is to say, to a finite quantity; and, on the other hand, the denominator, of which

gine term of the smaller exponent, after the requisite multiplication, is m(m—1) abz™—, is

340 FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS .

points ; this quantity would, therefore, not be constant in the entire line of the
curve as the equation of equilibrium requires.

Let us imagine, now, that the liquid fulfils the condition just laid down, and
proceed to consider, at its departure from the axis, an are of the meridian line.
As, by the hypothesis, this line.is neither straight nor cireular, the curvature of
the are will vary from one point to another; it will commence, consequently,
either by a process of augmentation or diminution, and we may take an are so
small that the curvature shall go on constantly augmenting or constantly dimin-
ishing from the point situated on the axis, quite to the other extremity. Let
us suppose, first, the curvature continually increasing, and let a 6 d (Fig. 1) be
the arc in question. At the point @ the perpendicular is coincident with the
axis, and, in proportion as it leaves that point, forms with the axis a progress-
ively greater angle; but we will so limit the length of the are that, from a to d,
this angle shall not cease to be an acute one. Through the two points, a and d,
let us describe an are of a circle, a c d, which shall have its centre on the axis,
and which, consequently, meets this axis perpendicularly.

Fig 2 Fiy3 Pye Fig

Ba f
a4 \
“y

al PA vA

Since the are a 4 d, whose curvature constantly increases, departs from @ in
the same direction with the are of a circle, and, after being separated from it,
rejoins it at d, it is evident that its curvature must, at first, be less than that of
this second are, and afterwards become greater, so that at the point d the radius
of curvature of the are a 4 d is smaller than the radius of the are of the circle.
But from the common initial direction of the two arcs, and from this relative
progression of the curvature of the are @ & d, it necessarily results that this
last is, as the figure shows, exterior to the other, and that at the point d it must
cut and not be a tangent to it; if, then, at this point d, we draw the perpen-
dicular d f to the are of the curve and the radius d g of the are of the circle,
the former will be less oblique to the axis than the latter, and will conse-
quently be shorter. Thus, at the point d, the two quantities M and N will be
both less than the radius of the are of the circle. Let us take now, in the part
of the are a b d, where the curvature is less than that of the arc of the circle,
any point m, and let us take, on the second of these ares, a point 2, so that the
portion a z shall be equal in length to the portion a m. Under these condi-
tions, the point m will be evidently more remote from the axis than the point x,

entirely annulled. We may remark, in passing, that this result is independent of the con-
dition m<2, so that it is true as well for a radius of curvature, finite or infinite, at the point
situated on the axis, as for a radius of curvature null, which should be the case according
to what has been seen above. Now, if at this same point the radius of curvature is null, the
a
W
becomes at the same time infinite, their difference becomes also infinite, which is what was
required to be demonstrated.

two quantities N and both assume, indeed, an infinite value; but, since their ratio

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 341

and, on the other hand, the perpendicular at m will be more oblique to the axis
than the radius drawn from; for this double reason the perpendicular in ques-
tion will be greater than the radius of the are of the circle; but, because of the
inferiority of the curvature at m, the radius of curvature at that point will be
also greater than the radius of the are of the circle.

From all this it resuits that the values of M and N, corresponding to the
point m, are both superior to those which correspond to the point d; but it is
clear that M and N are of the same sign throughout the length of the are a 6 d,

and that thus, at the point m as at the point d, the quantity _

a sum; this same quantity, then, is smaller at m than at d, and, consequently,
the equilibrium of the liquid figure generated is impossible.

If we suppose, now, that the curvature of our meridian are constantly dimin-
ishes, as is seen in a’ 8! d’, (Fig. 2,) it is apparent that then this arc will be
interior to the arc of a circle a’ c’ d’, having its centre on the axis, that its cur-
vature will at first be superior and become afterwards inferior to that of the
latter, and that at the point d' one of the arcs will again intersect and not be a
tangent to the other; whence we may conclude, by the mode of reasoning

constitutes

employed in the preceding case, that the quantity eee is greater at a point

near a’ than at d’, so that the figure generated is, as before, impossible.
Hence, when the meridian line meets the axis, the condition of equilibrium
cannot be satisfied unless that line is a circumference of a circle, having its
centre on the axis, or, if we suppose the radius of this circumference to be infi-
nite, a right line perpendicular to the axis; the figure generated, therefore, is
necessarily either a sphere or a plane.

From this flows, as a necessary consequence, the truth of the proposition
which I advanced (2d series, § 28) from the results of experiment, namely, that
when a continuous and finite portion of a surface of equilibrium rests on a cir-
cular periphery, that portion must constitute a spherical cap or a plane. To
be otherwise, it would be necessary that the cap should not be a curve of revo-

‘ lution—a supposition which is never realized.

§ 3. The meridian lines of such other figures of equilibrium of revolution as
ean have no point in common with the axis, must either be extended infinitely,

or be closed beyond the axis.. The first class will generate figures which
extend to infinity, and of these the cylinder has already afforded an example.
The second would yield annular figures; and we shall see, at the end of the
present series, whether the existence of figures of that kind is possible.

To simplify the investigation of the lines in question, we shall proceed to
demonstrate that they contain no point of retrogression. If we suppose the
existence of a point of that nature, there are three cases to be considered : first,
that in which the tangent at the point of retrogression, a tangent which is com-
mon to the two branches of the curve, is not perpendicular to the axis of revo-
lution, whatever direction it may otherwise have; second, that in which this
common tangent is perpendicular to the axis, and where the two branches ap-
proach the latter in proceeding towards the point of retrogression ; and, third,
that in which the common tangent, being again perpendicular to the axis, the
two branches, in proceeding towards the point of retrogression, withdraw from
that axis. /

First case-—By casting the eyes on Fig. 3, which represents, in meridian
sections, portions of the liquid figure, for different positions of the point of retro-

ression in relation to the axis of revolution ZZ’, we readily perceive that in
the neighborhood of that point the perpendicular is always, as regards one of
the branches, directed to the interior of the liquid, and is consequently positive ;

342 FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

6

while, as regards the other, it is directed to the exterior, and is consequently
: 1 ec : t

negative. Now, the equation aty=e cannot comprise this change of sign of
the perpendicular N in passing from one branch to the other, for it would re-
quire that at the point of retrogression this perpendicular should be null or in-
finite; and in the present case the perpendicular in question is evidently finite,
since the tangent is not perpendicular to the axis, and the point of retrogression
cannot be upon the latter.

Second case —lIf the point of retrogression be of the second kind—that is to
say, if the two branches which meet therein are situated on the same side of the
common tangent—we see that, for one of these branches, the perpendicular and
the radius of curvature are both positive, while for the other they are both

Me: ° sa ag ! ;
negative; the quantity MON would then change the sign in passing from one
to the other, and thus would not be the same through the whole extent of the
liquid figure.

If the point of retrogression is of the first kind—that is, if the two branches
are situated on the two opposite sides of the common tangent—the radius of cur-
vature, we know, is there null or infinite, but a radius of curvature null would

render infinite thé quantity ale so that we have to examine only the hypoth-
*

esis of a radius of infinite curvature. Since, then, from the direction of the tan-
gent, the perpendicular is also infinite at the point which we are considering,
Pi cel ia : 4
the quantity tay would be reduced to zero at the same point; it would there-
fore be necessary, for equilibrium, that this quantity should also be null at all
other points of the meridian line. Now, this is impossible, since, when we depart
from the point of retrogression, the radius of the curvature and the perpendicu-
lar assume, on each of the branches respectively, values finite and of the same
sign.

Third case.—If the point of retrogression is of the second kind, the radius ,
of curvature has opposite signs on the two branches, and consequently must be
either null or infinite at the point in question; but, as has been already shown,
we need not occupy ourselves with the hypothesis of a radius of curvature null;
there remains, therefore, that of a radius of curvature infinite. Now, the perpen-
dicular at the same point being likewise infinite, equilibrium requires, as above

that the quantity ath should be null for all the points of the meridional line.

Here, at first glance, the thing seems possible, since, near the point of retrogres-
sion, the radius of curvature and the perpendicular, on each branch considered
separately, are of contrary signs, but we shall presently see that this possibility
is but apparent.

If the point of retrogression be of the first kind, the radius of curvature is
there necessarily null or infinite, as has been already shown; and since we must

; = , Lins ,
reject the radii of curvature null, the quantity vee is again equal to zero at

the point in question, and must be so likewise at all other points; which appears
possible as in the former ease, and for the same reason. But in order that at

all points of the meridian line the quantity = ae should be null, it is evidently —

necessary that in each of these points the radius of curvature must be equal
and opposite to the perpendicular. Now geometers are aware that one curve
alone possesses this property, and that that curve is the ecatena, (chainette,)
which has no point of retrogression.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 343

§ 4. The principles established in the two preceding paragraphs having elimi-
nated from the question of our meridian lines the complications which might
have embarrassed it, we my proceed to deal more directly with the subject.

In the experiments relative to the formation of the liquid cylinder between
two solid rings (2d series, § 38,) when the upper ring has been raised so as to
cause the mass of oil to lose ifs spherical form, but not sufficiently to cause it
to assume the cylindrical form, we obtained a portion of a figure of equilibrium
of revolution pertaining neither to the sphere nor to the cylinder; it was shown,
moreover, that if, after having formed the cylinder, the separation of the rings
increased, there would result another portion of a figure of equilibrium equally
differing from the sphere and the cylinder, and which will of course be under-
stood as being also one of revolution. In order to determine what the liquid
figures, to which the portions in question pertain, would be in their completed
state, let us first cite a new experiment.

We take as a solid system a cylinder of iron of considerable length in pro-
portion to the diameter, and supported by two feet made of wire of the same
metal (Fig. 5;) let the length, for instance, be 14 centimetres, and the diameter
2. 'This cylinder being carefully rubbed with oil and introduced into the vase,
we bring into contact with it, midway its length, a sphere of oil of suitable
volume. As soon as adhesion takes place, the liquid mass spreads upon the sur-
face of the cylinder so as to envelop a part of its extent, loses the spherical
form, and constitutes in the end a figure of revolution whose meridian line
changes curvature in the direction of its two extremities, becoming at those two
points a tangent to the generating cylinder.** The meridian section of the liquid
figure and of the cylinder is represented at Fig. 6.

§ 5. As we have shown theoretically, (2d series, §§ 6 dzs, 10, 18 and 20,) and
have verified by many experiments, when the liquid mass adheres to a solid sys-
tem which causes it to lose its spherical form, the only parts of that system on
which the new figure of equilibrium depends are the very minute lines along
which it is in contact with the superficial layer or stratum of the mass, so that,
the system may in general be reduced to iron wires representing those lines.
Now, in the figure which we are considering, the free surface of the liquid mass
touches our solid cylinder along’ two circumferences perpendicular to the axis,
and passing by the points a and 4; we may therefore readily conceive the en-
tire cylinder replaced by two rings representing those circumferences, that is,
with an exterior diameter equal to that of the cylinder, and placed vertically as
regards one another, having between them the interval a4. It will be necessary,
however, that the quantity of oil should be greater in order to supply the volume
of that portion of the cylinder suppressed in the interior of the mass; it will
require even a little oil in excess to furnish the substance of the two bases
which rest upon the rings, bases whose surfaces, as we shall presently see, will
be convex spherical caps. In order to avoid these last, which would needlessly
complicate the figure, we may take disks instead of rings; then, in both cases,
the figure will be entirely formed of oil, and it is represented in this state, in

' *M. Beer (see note 1 of § 1) indicates the same experiment for verifying one of the results
of his calculations; but I had employed it long before.

a all

344 FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

its meridian section or vertical projection, by Fig. 7, a m and 4 m being the sec-
tions or projections of the disks. It will be stated hereafter for what reasons
we have suggested the use of a cylinder rather thangof disks or rings.

§ 6. The figure which we have thus obtained, and in which the meridian line
stops at the points a and 6 where it touches the cylinder (Fig. 6) or meets the
borders of the disks (Fig. 7,) evidently constitutes but a portion of the complete
figure of equilibrium. Let us attempt then to follow the meridian line, start-
ing from these same points a and 4 where its elements are parallel to the axis.

It is easy to show that the points a@ and 6 are not points of inflexion. At
such points the radius of curvature is either null or infinite; but since, in our
meridian lines, there can be no question of a radius of curvature null, which
would render the first member of the equation of equilibrium infinite, it would
be necessary to suppose this radius infinite at the points which we are consider-

ing, and the equation would there be reduced to ~ =O. Now, the points candd

(Fig. 6) are really points of inflexion of this kind, as the aspect of the figure
shows, in so much that the equation of equilibrium is there necessarily reduced

1
tor =G; the perpendicular N should then, at the points @ and 4, have the

same length as at the points ¢ and d, which is evidently not the case; for, in
the first place, the points ¢ and d are more remote from the axis than the points
a and 6, and, moreover, the perpendiculars which proceed from the former are
oblique to the axis, while those which correspond to the latter are perpendicular
to it.

Beyond the points @ and 4, then, the curve begins by preserving a curvature
having the same direction as before, that is,a curvature concave towards the ex-
terior (Fig. 8.) Now, let us suppose that in the prolongation starting from a,
for instance, this curvature should continue either augmenting or diminishing
less than it diminishes on the other side of a; we can always take on the pro-
longation in question a portion a m so small that at each point the curvature
shall be stronger than at the corresponding points of a portion a m of the same
length taken on the first part of the curve. By virtue of the greater curvature
of all the points of the are a m, the point m is necessarily more remote from the
axis than the point m, and, moreover, the perpendicular m 7 which proceeds from
the former is more oblique to the axis than the perpendicular n s which proceeds
from the second; the perpendicular at m is, for this double reason, greater than
the perpendicular at ~. On the other hand, conformably with the same hypothe-
sis relative to curves, the radius of curvature at m is smaller than atm. ‘Thence
it results that.in passing from the point 2 to the point m, the first term of the

quantity MON will increase and the secund diminish. Now, in the parts of

the curve which we are considering, the radius of curvature and the perpendic-
ular are opposite to one another, and have consequently contrary signs, so that

Bg Seg pe ; ; : .
the quantity MN constitutes a difference; if, then, one of the terms of this

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 345)

quantity increases while the other decreases, it cannot preserve the same value,
and equilibrium is impossible. If we suppose, on the contrary, that the curva-
ture of the are a@ m, on parting from a, diminishes more than that of the arc a x,

we shall conclude, by the same mode of reasoning, that the quantity its
)

would likewise change its value in passing from one of the parts of the curve
to the other.

Thus the hypothesis of curvatures either greater or less in the are a m than
in the are a@ 7 is incompatible with the equation of equilibrium; it is conse-
quently necessary, in order to satisfy this equation, that, on the small prolonga-
tion a m, the curvatures should be identically the same as on an are a x of the
same length taken on the other side of a. Now, it is clear that this implies the
identity of the whole portion of the curve situated beyond the point a with the
portion situated within it. The portion of the curve comprised between @ and &
(Figs. 6 and 7) will be reproduced, therefore, beyond a, and, for the same reasons,
will be still reproduced indefinitely; and the same will be the case on the other
side of the point 4, in such manner that the meridian line will represent an un-
dulating curve extending to infinity along the axis, approaching and retiring
alternately and periodically by equal quantities.

The complete figure of equilibrium, therefore, is prolonged to infinity along
the axis, and is composed of a regular and equal succession of expanded and
constricted portions, of which Fig. 9 represents a meridian section of a certain

Fig.9

extent. To this figure of equilibrium we shall apply, in the sequel, the name
of wnduloid, from the form of its meridian line.

§ 7. Itis easy to conceive how equilibrium may exist in such a figure, although
in the dilated parts the curvature is convex in all directions around the same
point, while, in the constricted parts, the curyature is convex in certain direc-
tions and concave in others: it is because, in these latter parts, the convex or
positive curvatures are stronger than the concave or negative curvatures, so that
the mean at each point (2d series, § 6) is positive and equal to that which cor-
responds to the different points of the dilated parts. From the fact that,
in the unduloid, the mean curvature is positive, it necessarily results that when-
ever we realize any portion of an unduloid between two rings, the bases which
rest upon the latter will be convex spherical caps.

§ 8. If, in the experiment of § 4, the volume of oil remaining the same, we
employ a solid cylinder of greater diameter, the liquid mass extends still more
in the direction of the axis, and the meridian curvatures diminish, so that, in
the corresponding complete figure, the expansion and constrictions are less de-
cided. ‘Thus the meridian curvatures, in the partial and consequently in the
complete figure, become proportionably effaced as the diameter of the solid cylin-,
der is greater; whence we perceive that, in these variations, the complete figure
tends towards the cylindrical form, which may be considered, therefore, as the
limit of the variations.

If, on the contrary, while the volume of oil still remains the same, we employ
a solid cylinder of smaller diameter, the liquid mass becomes constricted in the
direction of the axis, the meridian curvatures augment, and the figure approxi-
mates more and more to the sphere; thus, for instance, when for a mass of oil
constituting primarily a sphere 6 millimetres in diameter, we take, as solid cylin- |

346 FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

der, an iron wire 2 millimetres in thickness, the mass assumes almost exactly
the spherical form, and, if we use a very fine wire, the variance from the spheri-
cal form becomes wholly imperceptible. And inasmuch as the complete figure
varies in this manner in all its parts, the dilatations and constrictions will be
more and more decided, and, at the final limit, the figure will consist of a sue-
cession of equal spheres, tangents to one another on the axis.

The complete unduloid may, therefore, vary in form between two very wide
limits, being, on the one hand, the cylinder, and, on the other, a succession of
equal spheres which touch one another on the axis. In Fig. 10 are represented

, Figo

——————— ——— =<

two unduloids, one ‘of which differs little from the cylinder, and the other ap-
proximates to a series of spheres. In these different aspects the figure of equi-
librium with which we are occupied has, as we see, an analogy with the succes-
sive phases of the transformation of an indefinite liquid cylinder (Fig. 30 of 2d
series.)

§ 9. But the unduloid is susceptible of another kind of variation, which
gives a third limit. Let us suppose a vase similar to that we have been using,
but of dimensions much greater ; let us place therein horizontally, immersed in
the alcoholic liquid, a solid cylinder 2 centimetres in diameter, for instance, and
of considerable length, supported on feet sufficiently elevated. We cause to
adhere to this cylinder a mass of oil which shall produce a portion of an undu-
loid similar to that of Fig. 6, and then add a new quantity of oil; the figure
will now increase in length and at the same time in thickness ; but let us push
it slightly on one side, so that one of its extremities shall be brought back to
the same place as at first, and tle other only remain extended. If we add
successively new quantities of oil, still pressing back the first extremity of the
figure to the same place, this figure will progressively acquire greater thickness,
and its second extremity will retire more and more; and, as we may conceive
the vessel as large and the cylinder as long as we please, there is nothing
which prescribes a term to the theoretical possibility of the increase of the
figure in thickness as well as length. If, then, we suppose this increase carried
to infinity, the summit of the convex meridian are and the second extremity of
the figure will exist no longer, so that the meridian line, beginning with the

‘first extremity, will continue to retire indefinitely from the axis; and since the
extremity last mentioned constitutes the neck (cercle de gorge) of a constricted
portion, and since, on both sides of such a constriction, everything is perfectly

symmetrical, (§ 6,) we perceive that the complete meridian line will be reduced
to a simple curve with two infinite branches, like the parabola, having its axis
of symmetry perpendicular to the axis of revolution; consequently the com-
plete figure generated will itself be reduced to a single constriction, extending
indefinitely from one part to the other of its cercle de gorge. We shall pre-
sently learn, in a precise manner, the nature of this third limit of the unduloid.

§ 10. Let us return, now, to the employment of two disks for the realization
of the portion of unduloid comprised between the middle points of two neighbor-
ing constrictions, (§ 5.) When we attempt this realization by attaching to the

_two disks a greater mass of oil than should constitute the figure, and then

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 347

gradually absorb the excess by means of the small syringe, the operation pro-
ceeds without difficulty so long as the elements of the meridian line which ter-
minate at the edges of the disks deviate considerably from parallelism with
the axis; but when they approximate to this parallelism, or, in other words,
when we approach the portion of the unduloid which we wish to obtain, it is
necessary to operate with greater precaution, as the figure might otherwise
change spontaneously and disunite. By conducting the operation with care,
and, towards the end, removing"the oil only in very small quantities, we arrive,
as far as the eye can judge, at the desired portion of the undulaid, (Fig. 7,) a
portion which varies in form by approaching or withdrawing from the cylinder,
according as the diameter of the disks is greatgr or smaller relatively to their
distance; but then the slightest cause, such as a minute movement communi-
cated to the mass by the point of the syringe, is sufficient to produce the
gradual alteration and destruction of the figure, which is seen to grow progres-
sively thinner near one of the disks, the oil being transferred in greater quantity
to the side of the other disk, and the mass finally separates into two parts.
From the fact that, in the figure obtained as above, an alteration, occasioned by
the most trifling cause, proceeds afterwards spontaneously, it would seem that
the portion of unduloid comprised between the middle of one constricted por-
tion and that of the next is at the limit of stability.

We see, from what has just been said, why, in § 4, the adoption of a eylin-
der as a solid system was recommended. With disks, there is need of the
greatest circumspection and care to arrive at the point where the last elements
of the meridian line are or appear parallel to the axis; while with the cylinder
the figure is perfectly stable, and the required parallelism is established of
itself. But it remains to be explained how the stability of thé figure can de-
pend on the two circumferences along which the superficial stratum of the mass
touches the cylinder, (§ 5.) This is easily done: in the case of the disks,
when it happens, as has been said, that the figure grows thin spontaneously on
one side, the elements of the superficial stratum which terminate at the edge
of the disk near which this effect takes place are inclined towards the axis,
(Fig. 11;) but, in the case of the cylinder, the last elements of the superficial
stratum cannot be thus inclined, since they lie on the surface of the solid.

Fig 11 Fig. 13

This explanation naturally suggests the idea of substituting for thin disks
thick ones, or, rather, portions of a cylinder ; for, by giving to the mass, at first,
a sufficient volume for the oil to reach the edges of the faces of these thick
disks opposite to those which front one another, and then removing so much of
the liquid that the circumferences of contact shall fall on the thickness of the
disks, the cause of stability, above indicated, will evidently exist just as well
as with a continuous ¢ylinder. Now, this is fully confirmed by experiment;
the disks which I used had each a diameter of 15 millimetres and a thickness
of 8, and were fixed at a distance of 90 millimetres apart; the entire system is
represented at Fig. 12. By causing to adhere to the whole a mass of oil, at
first too great, then removing the excess, and lightly pressing the mass to right
or left with the point of the syringe, so that the points from which the meridian
line appeared to depart were nearly at an equal distance from the two bases of
each disk, the figure produced evinced a perfect stability ; it is practicable, by

348 FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

continuing to absorb small quantities of oil, to bring the extremities of the
meridian line very near the edges of the solid bases fronting one another with-
out a loss of stability in the figure, and only when they seemed to reach those
edges was instability manifested. »

§ 11. Since the portion of unduloid with which we are occupied has already
reached the limit of stability when it is formed between two thin disks, and is _
thus free in its whole extent with the exception alone of its bases, it would be
useless to seek to realize a portion of unduloid equally free which should extend
on both sides beyond the centres of two constrictions, and hence we infer that
the indefinite unduloid is, like the indefinite cylinder, an unstable figure of
equilibrium. An experiment, hgwever, of our 2d series, affords incidentally
an unduloid which is prolonged beyond the centres of two constrictions, but
very close to the cylinder; to this we shall return hereafter.

§ 12. It is now easy to see that the convex figures spoken of in § 38 of our
2d series, while describing the formation of the liquid cylinder, figures which —
are obtained when, after having.attached a sphere of oil to two horizontal solid
rings equal in diameter and placed one above the other, we raise the upper
ring by aless quantity than that which gives to the mass the cylindrical form—
that these figures, I say, are nothing else but portions of the dilatations of the
unduloid; only, when these convex figures are produced by the process just
recalled, they are so placed that their axis is vertical.*

Let us conceive, in effect, an unduloid realized by means of two thick disks,
(§ 10,) and consequently in a state of stable equilibrium, and imagine that we
place at equal distances to the right and left of the middle of this figure, be-
tween that middle and the thick disks, two vertical solid rings, having their
centres on the axis and their exterior circumference precisely at the surface of
the mass; it is clear that these rings will not destroy the equilibrium of the
figure. Now, if we suppose that the parts of the figure situated beyond these
rings are replaced by convex spherical caps resting on the latter, and whose
curvature is such that it occasions a pressure equal to that which pertains to
the rest of the figure, equilibrium will still evidently exist, and it will still be
perfectly stable, since the distance of the rings is less than that which corre-
sponds to the limit of stability. But, then, if the rings are not sufficiently
separated for the portion of the meridian line which extends from one to the
other to contain points of inflection, it is evident that the whole will constitute
one of the convex figures in question; for, according to the different forms of
the unduloid, the meridian line of the portion comprised between the rings may
vary from an are of a circle, with its centre on the axis, to a straight line, as
in these convex figures. For these last not to be portions of an unduloid, it
would be necessary that between the same rings, placed at the same distance
from one another, and with an equal mass of oil, there should be two figures
of equilibrium possible, both of them stable, which experiment contradicts. If,
after having transformed a sphere of oil into one of the convex figures in ques-
tion, whether by increasing the separation of the rings or by subtracting a cer-
tain quantity of the liquid, we agitate the alcoholic mixture so as to give con-
siderable motion to the mass of oil, but still not enough to disunite it, and then —
allow it to return to a state of rest, it will always resume identically the same
form.

In the experiments of §§ 44 and 45 of the 2d series, tvhen the rings or disks
were placed at a distance of four times their diameter, and the liquid mass com-
prised between them was sufficient for the stability of the figure, this figure
evidently constituted part of an unduloid; but as, by the abstraction of oil, we
afterwards arrived, through a very small diminution of the mass, at its sponta-
neous destruction, it follows that the portion of unduloid in question was but

we en Bien Rte oR ie rs hd neal I oe
* One of these convex figures is represented at Fig. 21 of 2d series.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 349

little removed from its limit of stability, and that hence its meridian line con-
tained very probably points of inflection.

In describing the experiments of § 65 of the same series, experiments which
commence with the momentary realization of a cylinder a little transcending
the limit of stability, it was said that the spontaneous alteration of this cylin-
der was sometimes manifested by the formation of two constricted portions
comprising between them one dilated portion; that this state of the figure,
after attaining no very decided development, appeared to remain stationary for
some time; that then one of the constricted portions was slowly obliterated
while the other deepened, and the transformation continued afterwards in the
ordinary manner. Now, from the fact that this figure, with two contractions,
persists for a considerable time, it must be inferred that it constitutes a figure
of equilibrium, and consequently an unduloid little different from the cylinder
and surpassing the limit of stability—that is, extending itself beyond the cen-
tres of the two constricted portions. In effect, since such an unduloid, al-
though unstable, is a figure of equilibrium equally with the unstable cylinder,
it may likewise be formed, for some moments, between the disks, and it may
be conceived that a slight accidental cause would suffice to transform the mass
from one of these figures into the other. We see, finally, that, in the experi-
ments of § 10 of the present series, the liquid mass thus always constitutes a
portion of an unduloid which becomes modified, without ceasing to pertain to
this kind of figure, in proportion as we absorb the excess of oil. °

§ 13. The transient unduloid, spoken of above, verifies the conclusions of § 6
relative to the pursuit of the meridian line beyond points of the concave parts
where the elements become parallel to the axis. Unfortunately this unduloid
is not produced at will; its meridian curvatures are weak, and it is otherwise
unstable; but another experiment, to which allusion has been made without
describing its results, furnishes a precise verification of the same conclusions.

If, after having formed between two rings a vertical cylinder whose height is
much less than that which would correspond to the limit of stability, we
slightly raise the upper ring, the cylinder is observed to become somewhat
hollowed in the meridian direction, so that the figure presents a constriction ;
if the ring be again raised, the constriction still deepens and the figure remains
perfectly symmetrical on both sides of the cercle de gorge, which is, conse-
quently, situated at the middle of, the interval between the rings. If, in‘the
cylinder with which we started, the ratio between the height and diameter was
suitable, we may, by proceeding thus, render the constriction very decided, and
then the meridian line changes the direction of its curvature by tending towards
the rings, so that it presents two points of inflection at an equal distance on
both sides of the cercle de gorge; the bases of the figure, also, preserve their
convex form, and even their curvature increases more or less. In this experi-
ment there is always, we may conceive, a limit to the separation of the rings,
beyond which equilibrium is no longer possible; if we overpass it, the con-
stricted portion grows spontaneously more slender, till it breaks and the figure
separates into two portions; but, for every degree of distance less than the
limit in question, the equilibrium is stable, The cylinder which has appeared
to give the above results most distinctly, is that whose height is to the diameter
nearly in the ratio of 5 to 7. In employing, for instance, rings of 70 millime-
tres in diameter, it is proper to form a cylinder of about 50 millimetres in
height; the upper ring may then be raised until it is distant from the other
nearly 110 millimetres, and we thus obtain a figure in which the cercle de gorge
has but a diameter of some 30 millimetres.

The experiment thus executed requires great precaution: the equality in the
densities of the two liquids and the homogeneity of the oil should be perfect,
and when the limit of separation of the rings is approached, it is necessary to
proceed with much circumspection. But we succeed without difficulty by so

350 FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

arranging that the axis of revolution shall be horizontal ; the rings of 70 milli-
metres, which are then vertical, should be previously placed at a distance of
110 millimetres apart; each of them is attached, by its lower part, to a vertical
iron wire, and the wires are themselves fixed, at their lower extremities, in a
plane table of iron, which supports the whole system; finally, these wires are
enveloped with cotton, that the oil may not adhere to them, (2d series, § 9.)
A cylinder (Fig. 13) is first formed between the two rings, then we gradually
diminish the volume of the mass by means of the small syringe. If, when the
neck is not more than about 30 millimetres in diameter, we take care to remove
the oil by only very small portions at a time, we shall succeed in reducing it
to 27 millimetres, and thus obtain the result represented by Fig. 14.

Now, it is evident that all these constricted figures with convex bases—figures
which, like those considered in preceding paragraphs, may deviate as little from
the cylinder as we choose—are still portions of unduloid, though taken differ-
ently in the indefinite unduloid: while the middle of the one is occupied by
the equator of a dilated portion, the middle of the others is occupied by the
cercle de gorge of a constricted portion; the most extended of the former,
except the transient unduloid mentioned above, is composed of an entire dilata-
tion between two demi-constrictions, (Figs. 6 and 7,) and that represented by
Fig. 14 is composed of an entire constriction between portions of two dilata-

tions.
>

Lig 17

§ 14. Resuming, now, our horizontal rings, with a view of placing, at will,
the upper one nearer to or further from the other, let us again form a*cylinder
between them, and, without changing their distance, gradually remove oil from
the mass. If the ratio of the distance of the rings to their diameter is much
less than in the last experiment of the preceding paragraph, the curvature of
the bases, instead of augmenting in proportion as the constriction deepens, con-
tinues, on the contrary, to diminish; and if this ratio does not exceed about %,
the bases at length become absolutely plane. With a ratio still less, we may
even proceed further; if the absorption of liquid is continued the bases become
concave. Let us form, for instance, between our rings of 70 millimetres diame-
ter, a cylinder 35 millimetres in height, (Fig. 17;) by gradual absorption of
the oil, we shall see the bases sink more and more at the same time that the .
constriction grows deeper, and, their curvature at length wholly vanishing, we
shall have the result represented by Fig. 18. If we still continued to use the
syringe, the bases would assume a concave curvature; but let us pause, for
the moment, while they are yet plane.

With such bases, the constriction comprised between the rings can no longer»
(§ 7) pertain to the unduloid, and we arrive, consequently, at a new figure of
revolution. Let us inquire what this is, in its complete state. We remember
(2d serieg, § 4) that the pressure corresponding to an elementyag the superficial

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 351

, BN) ey
stratum has for its value Patty Gt 3h) an expression in which A is a con-

stant dependent on the nature of the liquid and which cannot be null, and P the
pressure corresponding to a plane surface. Now, in the case with which we
are occupied, the pressure at any point of the complete figure must be equal to
that of a plane surface, since the bases of our partial figure are planes; the
above expression then will, in this case, be reduced to P, so that we have
RO SneR |
RR
face the mean curvature (2d series, §§ 5 and 6) is null, or, in other terms, at
each of these points there are, as in the portion formed between our rings, con-
cave curvatures whose effect exactly destroys that of the convex curvatures, so
that the pressure remains the same as if there had been no curvature.

0. Thus the figure in question is such that at each point of its sur-

vaveon Dal ah ; ; a! ,
Now, the equation RR? becoming here, according to the notation which

R
Reg]
we have adopted for figures of revolution, Mon” we deduce therefrom
M=—=—N;; whence we see that, at each point of the meridian line, the radius

of curvature is equal and opposed to the perpendicular. Now, geometers have
demonstrated that the only curve which possesses this property is the catena,
(chainetie.)* 'This, then, is so placed relatively to the axis to which the per-
pendiculars are referred, that the right line, which divides it symmetrically into
two equal parts, shall be perpendicular to that axis, and the summit of the
curve distant from the point of intersection of those two right lines by a quan-
tity equal to the radius of curvature of that summit. Our figure, then, in its
complete state, is that which would be generated by the revolution of a catena
thus placed in relation to the axis. We will, accordingly, give it the name of
catenoid, of which Fig. 19 represents a meridian section sufficiently extended,
the axis of revolution being ZZ.

The catena being a curve, whose branches are infinite, the catenoid also is
extended to infinity, like the cylinder and the unduloid, but no longer in the
direction only of the axis.

§ 15. We recall here a principle which was cursorily noticed in § 8 of the
2d series, and of which we afterwards made use in § 31 of the same series:
when a: surface satisfies the general condition of equilibrium of our liquid
figures, that condition is equally fulfilled whether we suppose the liquid on one
or the other side of the surface in question. In effect, the inversion of the posi-
tion of the liquid, with regard to the surface, only changes the signs of the two
principal radii of curvature corresponding to each of the points of the latter,
but evidently does not at all alter the absolute values of those radii, so that if

ate is constant in one of the cases, it will be so in the other.
There are always, then, for any one surface which satisfies the condition of
equilibrium, two liquid figures, the second of which, presents in concave what
the other presents in relief, and, vice versa, figures*which are both figures of
equilibrium. We see this realized, for instance, in our experiments as regards
the sphere; a mass of oil left free to itself in the midst of the alcoholic mix-
ture gives a sphere in relief, and, on the other hand, when some of the alcoholie
mixture is introduced into one of our masses of oil, the surfaces into which the
bubbles of this mixture are moulded constitute spheres of oil in concave, (2d
series, § 10.) In virtue of this principle we have two catenoids; that, namely,

the quantity

* The catena will be recognized as the curve formed, in a state of equilibrium, by a heavy
and perfectly flexible chain suspended at two fixed points. es

.

we

352 FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

of Fig. 19, in which the liquid fills the space left by the catena in revolving
between itself and the axis, and another in which the liquid occupies the space
embraced by the curve. A meridian section of the latter is represented by
Fig. 20.

: 16. In the experiment of § 14 we only succeed, as has been said, in ren-
dering the bases of the figure plane when the separation of the rings does not
exceed about 3 of their diameter. We shall recur, further on, to the details of
this experiment, which presents some curious particulars; but there is an im-
portant consequence which is deduced immediately from it, and which requires
our notice at present; for rings of a given diameter there is a maximum of
separation beyond which no portion of a catenoid is any longer possible be-
tween them. We shall proceed to show that this result is in accordance with
the theory, and we shall, at the same time, be conducted to a new result.

We have seen that the generating catena should satisfy the condition that
the radius of curvature of its summit be equal and opposite to the right line
which measures the distance of that summit from the axis of revolution. ‘This
being so, let us conceive, in a meridian plane, a right line perpendicular to the
axis of revolution, and representing the axis of symmetry of the catena, and
again a second right line parallel to the axis of revolution and distant from the
latter by a quantity equal to the radius of the rings. Let us conceive, further,
in the same plane, a generating catena having its summit at the point where
the right line of the rings is intersected by the axis of symmetry of which we
have spoken. This catena will be tangent at that point to the right line in
question, and consequently cannot rest upon the rings except when the peri-
pheries of these pass by the point of tangence, or, in other words, when the
mutual distance of the two rings shall be null;* the catena under consideration
corresponds then to the case of a separation null of the rings. Let us now
suppose that the curve quits this position, and proceeds gradually towards the
axis of revolution, being so modified as always to satisfy the condition of
equality between the radius of curvature of its surhmit and the distance of that
summit from the axis; in each of its new positions it will cut the right line of
the rings at two points, which we will designate as A and B. The distance of
these two points will then represent, in each of these positions, the distance
apart of the rings, and the corresponding catena will represent the meridian
line of a catenoid, of which the rings would comprise a portion between them.
This being premised, let us consider the evolutions of the points A and B. In
the initial position of the catena, when its summit is tangent to the right line
of the rings, these points are confounded at the point of tangence; but when
the summit of the curve begins to advance towards the axis of revolution, they
separate and progressively remove from one another. But their mutual dis-
tance will attain a maximum, after which that distance will continue to diminish.
In effect, conformably With the condition attached to the catena, when its sum-
mit shall have arrived very near the axis of revolution, the radius of curvature
of that summit will have become very small; whence it follows that the two
branches of the curve will closely approach one another, and that, conse-
quently, the two points A and B will also be in close proximity ; finally, when
the summit is on the axis, # eso same points will be again reunited, as then the
radius of curvature of the summit will be null, and the two branches of the
curve will form but a single right line coincident with the axis of symmetry.
Thus the points A and B, which were first coincident and then diverged from
one another, afterwards approach, until at last they again coincide; from which
it necessarily follows, as just stated, that their mutual distance attains a maxi-
mum; and it is easy to see, from the nature of the curve, that this maximum

* For simplicity, we here consider the two rings as possessing no thickness.

»
WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 353

must be finite, and indeed cannot be considerable relatively to the diameter of
the rings.*

It is evident that, in its transit to the axis of revolution, the curve has passed
through all the conditions which, with the given rings, are consistent with
equilibrium ; the above maximum, then, constitutes a limit of separation for the
rings, beyond which there can be no catenoid between them.

But the preceding furnishes another consequence equally remarkable. Since,
during the transit of the summit of the catena, the points A and B first with-
draw from and afterwards again approach one another, they necessarily repass
by the same distances, so that, for each distance less than the limit, they per-
tain at once to two catene. Now, it results from this that, to every degree of
separation less than the maximum, there always correspond two distinct cate-
noids resting on these rings, but penetrating unequally between them. We see
without difficulty that the summits of the two generating catenz, summits
which, for a separation null, are the one at the common periphery of the rings
in contact, and the other on the axis of revolution, approach one another more
and more in proportion as the separation increases, and finally coincide, equally
with the two entire curves, when that separation attains its maximum. ‘Thus
the two catenoids will differ so much the less as the separation of the rings is
greater, and when the limit has been reached will form but one.

§ 17. All catenz are, we know, alike; and hence if we imagine a series of
complete catenoids generated by catenz of different dimensions, all these catenz,

‘from the condition which they must satisfy, (§ 14,) will be similarly placed in
relation to the axis of revolution, and consequently all the catenoids will be
similar figures. The complete catenoid, then, is not susceptible of variations
of form like the unduloid, but constitutes an unique figure, like the sphere and
the cylinder. Hence the two complete catenoids whigh, theoretically, rest on
the same rings, when the separation of these is below the limit, do not differ
from one another except by their dimensions absolutely homologous.

§ 18. Of the two partial catenoids pertaining to these two complete catenoids,
and equally possible by the theory between the rings, our process necessarily
gives that which is least re-entering; if we attempt, by removing further
quantities of oil from the mass, to realize the most deeply re-entering catenoid,
there is always, as we shall presently see, another figure of equilibrium pro-
duced. From the impossibility, therefore, of realizing this partial and most
deeply re-entering catenoid, we may justly conclude that it would constitute an
‘unstable figure of equilibrium.

As to that which is least re-entering, it evidently forms a portion of the com-
plete catenoid, so much the more extended as the separation of the rings is
nearer its maximum; for, in proportion as the rings are more widely separated,
the are of the catena which they intercept between them is (§ 16) a more con-
siderable portion of the curve. In order to have a partial catenoid more ex-
tended in relation to the complete catenoid, it would be necessary that the
catena should penetrate more deeply between the rings; but then, by however
small a quantity the summit of the curve should advance, the separation of the
rings would diminish, (7bid.,) there would be another catena possible, less re-
entering and resting on the same rings, and the partial catenoid generated by
the first catena being the most re-entering, it would be unstable. The catenoid
of greatest height constitutes, then, the most extended portion of the complete
eatenoid which can be realized between two equal rings.

We will notice here another consequence to which the above would seem to
lead, and which would yet be opposed to fact; for every degree of separation

* We can determine its precise value by means of the equation of generating catene, but
this calculation is reserved for the series in which we shall unite all the applications of mathe-
matical analysis with the subject of our researches.

23 8s

354 FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

less than the maximum, the catenoid which is least re-entering always proves
perfectly stable, and, as has been shown above, that which is most re-entering
must be regarded as always unstable. Now, the catenoid of greatest height
forms, as has also been seen, the transition between the catenoids of the first
category and those of the second, and consequently between stable and un-
stable catenoids ; we might, therefore, take it for granted that the catenoid of
greatest height is.at the limit of stability of that kind of figure; and yet, when
we realize it with a mass of oil, it manifests a decided instability. We shall
presently know to what this apparent contradiction is attributable. |

§ 19. It is readily seen that the third limit of the variations of the unduloid,
a limit spoken of in § 9, is nothing else but the catenoid. In effect, by causing
the partial unduloid to vary in the manner indicated in that paragraph, it is
clear that, in proportion as the volume of the mass is increased, the perpen-
dicular and the. radius of curvature relative to the summit of the convex meri-
dian are continue to increase and become infinite at the same time with the

ft ad ;
—-+—is null, and this

volume; whence it follows that at that limit the quantity MN

we know to be the character of the catenoid.

N

zero in proportion as the unduloid approaches the catenoid, the general ex-
pression (§ 14) of the pressure exerted by an element of the superficial stratum
shows that this pressure tends, at the same time, towards that of a plane sur-
face. If, then, we imagine between two rings a constricted portion pertaining
to an unduloid, and that this unduloid is tending, by degrees, towards a cate-
noid, the bases of the figure, bases whose pressure must always be equal to
that of the constricted portion, will necessarily become less and less convex,
and be finally altogether plane. Now, this is what is evidently realized by the
experiment of § 14; when, after having formed between two rings a cylinder
whose height does not exceed % of the diameter, we gradually withdraw liquid
from it and the bases sink, by degrees, till they lose all curvature, the constric-
tion which is produced and which deepens in the same proportion pertains to
an unduloid which is tending towards its third limit, and thus the experiment
in question exhibits before our eyes the progressive transition of the unduloid
into the catenoid. If we collate the preceding with the contents of § 13, we
shall be authorized to deduce the conclusion that every constriction, resting on
two rings and presenting convex bases, is a constriction of an unduloid, whether
the curvature of the bases be superior, equal or inferior, to that of the bases of
the cylinder which would be comprised between the same rings.

§ 20. We will recite, now, the cixeumstances which have been presented to
us by the experimental investigation of the partial catenoid of greatest height.

The diameter of the rings employed was 71 millimetres. In all the experi-
ments which follow, the process commenced with forming a cylinder, and then
oil was withdrawn from the mass, at first by the syringeful and afterwards by
small portions; from time to time the operation was suspended in order to
observe the figure.

First experiment.—Distance of the rings 55 millimetres. The versed sine
of the spherical caps, which constitute the bases, is gradually reduced to a frac-
tion of a millimetre ; then, during an interruption of the exhaustion, a singular
phenomenon is produced; the figure undergoes a slight spontaneous modifica-
tion; the convexity of the bases rapidly augments until the versed sine re-
trieves a value of about 2.5 millimetres, and consequently the constriction
formed between the rings becomes somewhat thinner, and then the whole re-
mains stationary, By still cautiously absorbing oil, the versed sine increases

: ibe | 1 FIED
The quantity MTN’ or, what is the same thing, RR’ tending thus towards

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 355

to nearly 3 millimetres ; finally, in consequence of a new absorption, the figure
disunites in the usual manner at the middle of the constricted portion.

Second experiment.—Distance of the rings 49 millimetres. The bases pre-
sent, in the end, a total loss of curvature, and then, as above, there is a sponta-
neous transformation: the bases again become slightly convex, with a versed
sine of about 1 millimetre. A new absorption brings on disunion.

Third experiment.—Distance of the rings 47 millimetres. The bases again
appear to become plane, and the figure continues in this state. Further absorp-
tions seem, at first, to have no other effect than to deepen the constricted portion,
while the bases still appear plane; then a slight convexity is re-established,
but not now spontaneously ; it originates and increases in correspondence with
te exhaustion; when the versed sine is about 1.5 millimetre, disunion takes
place.

Fourth experiment.—Distance of the rings 45 millimetres. The bases be-
come first plane, then slightly concave. The versed sine of this concavity
increases nearly to 2 millimetres, and again a spontaneous transformation is
observed; the concavity is changed into a convexity, whose versed sine is
nearly a millimetre. The action of the syringe then occasions disunion.

Fifth experiment.—Distance of the rings 43 millimetres. The bases are ren-
dered plane, then concave, and the versed sine of the concavity gradually at-
tains 4 or 5 millimetres; the figure then disunites.

§ 21. Let us consider what these experiments teach; first remarking that it
is not easy to judge of the precise point at which the bases of the figures are
rendered plane, for an exceedingly slight curvature eludes the sight. Hence
arises some uncertainty in the determination of thé limit of height of the cate-
noid; fortunately the particulars which we have noticed will furnish us a means
of appreciation more exact. .

In the fourth experiment we necessarily realize plane bases, from the cireum-
stance that the curvature, from being convex, becomes gradually concave by
the progressive absorption of the liquid; but is this the case likewise in the
second and third, in which we seemed also to have realized planes? This,
is a point. which we will attempt to elucidate. The first, second, and third ex-

_periments have this in common, that a small spontaneous modification or trans-
formation of the figure is produced therein, while in the third this phenomenon.
does not occur; and this modification is observed decreasing from the first to.
the second, disappearing in the third, and reappearing in the fourth. From this:
we should infer that the third experiment forms a sort of transition, on one and
the other side of which the spontaneous transformations are manifested ; but
the effect was shown in the first experiment when the bases had still a visible
curvature, and in the fourth when they had assumed one in an inverse diree-
tion; it is highly probable, then, that in the second, at the moment when the
spontaneous transformation was seen to occur, the bases still preserved a real
curvature, though too feeble to be distinguished ; and that it was only in the third,
where the distance of the rings was 47 millimetres, that bases entirely plane
were attained. If, in this third experiment, the bases conceived to be plane
seemed not to begin to lose this state until after the absorption of a very con-
siderable quantity of liquid, that evidently results from the difficulty mentioned
above of clearly distinguishing the point at which the curvature is annulled.

Thus, for our rings of 71 millimetres diameter, we may admit that the dis-
tance of 47 millimetres differs very little from that at which we begin to obtain
bases strictly plane; and since 47 is obviously 3 of 71, we may conclude that

356 FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

the maximum height of the partial catenoid is, cither exactly or very nearly, 3
of the diameter of the bases. - This catenoid is represented by Fig. 21.

Let us now call attention to the slight spontaneous transformations, considered
in themselves. Till now, when we saw one of our liquid figures become trans-
formed, and thus pass from an unstable to a stable equilibrium, the alteration
was profound, the mass separated into two or several parts, and the final result
of the phenomenon always consisted of spheres or portions of spheres. Here,
there is nothing of the kind: the alteration is inconsiderable; the mass does not
disunite, and the final result is a figure which deviates little from the former,
at least in the portion realized, and which may be of the same nature. In the
first experiment, for example, an unstable partial unduloid is transformed into
another unduloid but little different, and doubtless the same is the case in the
second. Moreover, what is still more remarkable, the comparison of the first
two experiments seems to indicate that the unstable unduloid and the stable
unduloid into which it is converted approach one another indefinitely in pro-
portion as the distance of the rings is nearer the maximum height of the cate-
noid.

The experiments which we are discussing furnish the key of the difficulty
indicated at the end of § 18 in regard to the stability of the partial catenoid of
greatest height. When, the rings being at the distance which corresponds to
this catenoid and a cylinder formed between them, the small syringe is put in
operation, the figure becomes, as we know, unduloid, which, varying with the
progress of the absorption, tends towards the catenoid; but the third experi-
ment further shows that if, after having attained that limit, we continue the ope-
ration, the figure again insensibly becomes an unduloid which deviates, in pro-
portion to the exhaustion, from this same catenoid. If, then, the partial catenoid
of greatest height constitutes the transition between partial catenoids stable and
partial catenoids unstable, it constitutes, on the other hand, the transition be-
tween a continuous series of stable unduloids and another continuous series of
unduloids equally stable. Such is evidently the reason of the decided stability
of the partial catenoid of greatest height; hence, when, by means which will
be explained in a subsequent series, we render impossible the formation of every
other figure but the catenoid, this loses its stability as soon as we give it the
maximum height.

We close here the study of the unduloid and catenoid and pass to that of a
third figure.

§ 22. Of this third figure we already know a portion: it is the constriction
with concave bases obtained in the jast two experiments of § 20, a constriction
which, by the nature of those bases, is foreign to the unduloid and catenoid.
To realize it, it is requisite, as has been seen, that the distance of the rings
should be less than % of the diameter; Fig. 22 represents, in its meridian sec-
tion, such a constriction, for a distance of the rings equal to about a third of the
diameter, and when the bases have already become strongly concave; the dot-
ted lines are sections of the planes of the rings. Let us now endeavor, as in

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 357

the case of the two preceding figures, to determine the complete form of the
meridian line. ;

We will mention first a remarkable transformation which the partial figure
undergoes when the ratio between the distance and the diameter of the rings is
sufficiently below § to allow the abstraction of a large quantity of liquid with-
out occasioning disunion, and we carry this abstraction as far as possible. The
constricted portion and the bases alike becoming more concave, we know there
must arrive a moment after which their surfaces can no longer co-exist without
mutually cutting one another; there is then produced a phenomenon of the same
nature as with the liquid polyhedrons, (2d series, §§ 31 to 35)—that is to say, the
figure passes gradually to a laminar state: two conical films are seen to form,
proceeding respectively from each of the rings, and at the centre of the system
a plane film, such as is shown in meridian section at Fig. 23. These films ac-
quiring more and more development in proportion to the continued absorption
of oil, the whole tends finally to be reduced to a sort of double laminar and
truncated cone; but one of the films always breaks before we can reach that
point. It hence results that if we wish to observe the constriction in all its
phases with the form proper to it as pertaining to the new figure of equilibrium,
it is necessary to oppose an obstacle to the generation of films. Now this is ac-
complished without difficulty by substituting disks for rings, and thus prevent-
ing the bases from becoming concave; we may then remove oil until the figure
spontaneously disunites at the middle of its height.

§ 23. Before pursuing the meridian line beyond the limits of the partial figure,
we should offer two important remarks.

In the first place, the constricted portion, whether realized between rings or
disks, always shows itself perfectly symmetrical on both sides of the cercle de
gorge. This is eqtfally required by the theory, for the mode of reasoning of
§ 6 is independent of the nature of the meridian line, and applies as well to the
constricted portion with which we are occupied as to that of the unduloid. If,
then, in a meridian plane, we imagine a right line perpendicular to the axis of
revolution and passing by the eentre of the cercle de gorge, all that the com-
plete meridian line presents on one side of the above right line, it will also pre-
- sent, in a manner exactly symmetrical, on the other side, so that this right line
will constitute-an axis of symmetry.

In the second place, since, by employing rings, the bases of the partial figure
are concave, it follows that, through the whole extent of the complete figure
the pressure is less than that of a plane surface. Now, agreeably to the formula

1

dio pl
RR

eee! ;
the notation adopted in this series, Moy should be finite and negative. In

of such pressure, (§ 14,) this requires that the quantity , or, according to

our new figure, therefore, the mean curvature (2d series, §§ 5 and 6) is negative—
that is to say, at each point of this figure concave curvatures predominate.

§ 24. The points @ and 4, (Fig. 22,) at which the partial meridian line stops,
cannot, in the complete meridian line, be points of inflexion. We see, in fact,
from the direction of the tangent at those points, that if the meridian line, at
its departure thence, pursued a curvature in the contrary direction, (Fig. 24,)
the radius of curvature would, in this part of the figure, be directed to the in-

1 1
—+4— l
MN would

become positiye ; which cannot be, by reason of what has been said above.
Beyond the’points a and 4, then, the meridian line begins with a concave cur-
vature; and the same direction of curvature is evidently maintained, for the
same reason, so long as the curve contiuues to retire at once from the axis of
revolution and the axis of symmetry. But the curve cannot continue to sepa-

terior of theliquid like the perpendicular, and that thus the quantity

358 FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

rate indefinitely from those two axes: in effect, if such were its course, it is
clear that the curvature must diminish so as to be annulled, in each of the two
branches, at the point situated at infinity, whence at that point the radius of
curvature would have an infinite value; and as it would evidently be the same

: Eaeaey
as regards the perpendicular, the quantity MTN would become null at that limit.

It necessarily follows that at a finite distance from its summit the curve has two
points in which its elements are parallel to the axis of symmetry, and this ex-
periment confirms, as we are about to see.

§ 25. If we use disks, which are placed ata distance equal to about the third .
of their diameter, and carry the absorption of liquid sufficiently far, the angle
comprised between the last elements of the surface of the mass and the plane
of each of the disks diminishes until completley annulled, so that that surface is
then tangent to the planes of the disks, (Fig. 25,) and hence the last elements
of the meridian line are parallel to the axis of symmetry. It is very difficult
to judge of the precise point where this result is attained, but we ascertain that
it is really produced by continuing the exhaustion of the liquid: we soon see
the circumferences which terminate the surface of the mass abandon the mar-
gins of the disks, withdraw, by a diminution of diameter, to a certain distance
within them, and leave a smal! zone of each of the solid planes free; now, as
these zones remain necessarily moistened with oil, though the stratum be ex-
cessively thin, it is clear that the surface of the mass must there meet the’ planes
tangentially. If the separation of the disks is still less, we obtain a result of
the same nature; only, before spontaneous disunion takes place in the middle
of the figure, we may still further contract the circumferencesof contact, or, in
other words, enlarge the extent of the free zones. ‘

§ 26. The reason assigned in § 24 to establish the absence of an inversion
of curvature so long as the curve withdraws at once from the axis of revolu-
tion and the axis of symmetry, evidently still holds good at the points which
we have just been considering, that is to say, at those where the elements are
parallel to this last axis; whence it follows thatthe curve afterwards approaches
this latter axis, by preserving the same direction of curvature, as is shown at
Fig. 27, where the curve is drawn on a larger scale than the portion comprised
in Fig. 25, and where the axis of symmetry is represented by the right line XX’.
And so long as these prolongations of the curve continue to withdraw from the
axis of revolution, the direction of the curvature must still remain the same.
For let us suppose that it changes, at f and at g for instance, (Fig. 28,) then,
from the point f to a point such as m, situated a little beyond, the radius of
curvature and the perpendicular would have, it will be seen, opposite directions,

el:
so that the quantity —+ — would be a difference; now, from f to m the per-
ig Sh aL :

pendicular would evidently go on increasing, since, on one hand, the distance
from the axis of revolution increases, and, on the other, that perpendicular would
have a still greater and greater obliquity ; it would, therefore, be necessary, in
order for the above difference to remain constant, that the radius of curvature
should also continue to increase from f to m; but this is precisely the contrary
of what would occur, for, by reason of the inflexion, the radius of curvature
would be infinite at f, and consequently could only diminish after leaving that
point. It is needless to remark that what has been just said applies equally
to the point g.

Let us see now whether, before reaching the axis of symmetry, the curve
can present two points, such as / and k, (Fig. 29,) where its el@ments shall be
perpendicular to that axis. With that view we will examine what conditions
the curvature should satisfy from the summits to the points 2 and 4, and it
will suffice to consider the are sx. Let m be the point where the element of

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 359

the curve is parallel to the axis of symmetry. From s to » the radius of curva-
ture and the perpendicular have evidently contrary directions, and the quantity

Ae 4. ; :
MN constitutes a difference; therefore, from one point to another of this are,

the quantities M and N must vary in the same direction; and as the perpen-
dicular continues to increase from the point s to the point x, the radius of curva-
ture must continue likewise to increase; whence it follows that from s to x the
curvature is continually decreasing. Still further on, that is from 2 to h, we
see that the radius of curvature and the perpendicular are directed towards the

: }
same side, so that the two terms of the quantity MON are of the same size, and

hence from one point to another the quantities M and N must vary in opposite
directions. Now, when we remove from » on the are nh, the perpendicular
begins to diminish, since at the point x itis infinite; while the radius of curvature
begins to increase, or, in other terms, the curvature at the beginning diminishes,
and, whatever its ulterior course, will always be, at every point of the are nh,
weaker than at x, for at all those points the perpendicular is finite, and conse-
quently less than at x. But we know that the curvature continues to increase
from xz to s; therefore, in the whole extent of the are zh, the curvature is less
than at any point of the are ns.

Fig.29

=< S

Fig.30

This being premised, let us draw the right line Ar parallel to the axis of
symmetry, and then construct, beginning at the point , an are z¢ exactly sym-
metrical as regards the are mv. In the whole length of the are z/ the curvature,
by reason of what has been said, will be less than at any of the points of the
are nt; whence it follows that this last are will be entirely interior to the former.
Now, the are zt meets at ¢ the right line fr by an element which necessarily
makes with the part tv of that line an acute angle; then, in order that the are
nh, which proceeds from z in the same direction with the are wé, should meet
perpendicularly at / the right line 47, it would be necessary that, after separating
from the are né, it should afterwards again approach it, which is evidently im-
possible in consequence of the inferiority of the curvature at all its points. We
perceive, indeed, that it ought to cut the right line 27 under a more acute angle than
does the arezf. Thus, the curve, in declining at its departure from x towards the
axis of symmetry, cannot cease to withdraw from the axis of revolution; and since,
moreover, it cannot change the direction of its curvature, it must necessarily
intersect the axis of symmetry. We further perceive that, in consequence of
the condition which governs its curvatures, it must cut that axis obliquely, so
that we arrive, in the end, at the conclusion that it forms a node, (Fig. 30°) _

We shall verify the existence of this node by means of experiment. If we
have not commenced by doing so, it is because it was necessary first to demon-
strate that, starting from a constriction, for which the pressure is less than for a
plane surface, there is no other form possible for the meridian line.

360 FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

§ 27. The constrictions realized in the experiments of § 25 being gen-rated
by a portion of the node of the complete meridian line, it is obvious that the
figure generated by the entire node, from the summit of the latter to its point,
would be concave in the interior of the oil; but it is indifferent, we know, (§ 15,)
as regards equilibrium, whether the liquid be situated on one or the other sid
of the surface; the figure generated by the node may, therefore, be equally w~ll
supposed full or in relief, and it is in the latter state that our experiment will
realize it. Only when the liquid is transported to that side of the curve, the
quantities M and N at once change their sign, and consequently the quantity

ca ; : : . ang
mew ee being negative, as it was previously, becomes positive.

We form, in a ring of iron wire, a bi-convex liquid lens, (2d series, § 18,)
whose thickness shall be abont equal to the sixth of the diameter: for instance,
with a ring 70 millimetres in diameter, the thickness of the lens should be about
12mm. If we pierce perpendicularly this lens in its centre, by means which
will be indicated below, we obtain a regular annular figure, limited externally
by the solid ring, and continuing for two or three seconds; after which, the
central opening is seen to stretch towards a point of the solid ring, the mass
disunites at that point, and all the liquid flows towards the opposite part of the
ring, there to form a large and perceptibly spherical mass. Now, the momentary
annular figure, which is formed under these circumstances, is, though unstable, a
figure of equilibrium, since it subsists for some moments, and its duration is
long enough to enable us to observe that its meridian section has the form
represented by Fig. 31, in which the dotted line is the section of the plane of
the ring. This meridian section shows evidently that the surface of the figure
produced is generated by a node having its summit turned towards the axis of
revolution and its point to the solid ring,

Let us dwell for an instant on the details of the experiment just described
and on certain modifications of it. To pierce the lens, we should employ a
small cylinder of wood pointed at one end and joined at the other to an irou
wire, which is bent obliquely, so that, holding it with the hand, we can intro-
duce the small cylinder into the vase and pierce the lens perpendicularly. If
the diameter of the solid ring be 70 mm., as we supposed above, that of the
small cylinder should be about 16 mm.; and the cylinder and its point should
be covered with cotton cloth in order to prevent all adhesion of the oil.

If we give the lens a thickness sensibly exceeding the sixth part of the
diameter of the solid ring, the liquid returns upon itself as soon as the cylinder
is withdrawn, and the mass resumes its lenticular form; but we may give a less
thickness than the above limit, when the central opening will assume larger
dimensions, and the node of the meridian line be consequently smaller. When
the thickness of the lens is sufficiently inferior to the limit in question, the man-
ner in which the spontaneous destruction of the unstable figure takes place is
not the same; the central opening does not then extend towards a point of the
solid ring, but the annular liquid mass contracts and disunites in several places
at once, so as to be converted into a series of small isolated masses, which
adhere to different parts of the metallic ring. The unstable liquid ring spoken
of in § 19 of the second series pertains to the sort of figure which we are now
studying, and it will be remembered that it proceeds from a lens whose thick-
ness has been rendered as small as possible.

§ 28. As the liquid ring may thus assume, in the same solid ring, very dif-
ferent dimensions according to the thickness of the lens, or, in other words, ac-
cording to the volume of the liquid of which it is formed, it results that, for the
same distance from the point of the node of the meridian line to the axis of
revolution, the length of the node may vary between wide limits: in the ex-
periments above described, these variations are comprised between a very small

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 361

fraction of the distance in question and nearly three-fourths of that distance.
The complete figure with which we are occupied is thus not always similar to
itself, as are the sphere, the cylinder, or the catenoid; like the unduloid it is
susceptible of variations of form. A comparison of the liquid figures repre-
sented by Figs. 25 and 26 leads to the same conclusion.

§ 29. Before proceeding, we will notice a remarkable particular. If we sup-
pose the node in relief, the liquid which occupies it is in the coneavity of the
curve; and since this line does not change the direction of its curvature in pass-
ing the point u, (Fig. 30,) the liquid will still occupy the concavity of each
of the prolongations wv and ww; it fills therefore the spaces comprised between
these prolongations and the node, so that this node is engaged, whether com-
pletely or partially, in the interior of the mass. If we suppose the node hollow,
(en creux,) it is, as may be easily seen, the prolongations wv and ww which are
then engaged in the liquid. Hence results this singular consequence, that,
though the general condition of equilibrium is satisfied, we cannot represent to
ourselves the complete figure, except in the state of a simple surface, not in that
of a liquid mass. In this last state it is only possible to imagine isolated por-
tions of the figure—such, for instance, as the portion generated by the node alone.
This peculiarity of a surface re-entering into the mass is one of those to which
allusion was made in §1 of the second series, and which would render the
realization of certain figures of equilibrium in their whole extent impossible,
even if those figures did not extend to infinity.

§ 30. Let us attempt now to discover the course of the curve beyond the
points » and w, (Fig. 30.) We already know, from reasons stated in § 26, and
illustrated by Fig. 28, that as long as the branches of the curve continue to
retire from the axis of revolution, the curvature cannot change its direction, and
consequently remains concave towards that axis. This being so, there are evi-
dently but three hypotheses possible: either the branches in question retire from
the axis of revolution in such manner that their distance from the latter tends
towards infinity, or they tend towards an asymptote parallel to this axis; or
each of them presents, at a finite distance from the point w of the node, (Fig. 30,)
a point at which the element is parallel to the same axis. The first of these _
we may at once dismiss ; it would require, as has been already shown, (§ 24,)
that at the points situated at infinity on the two branches, the radius of curva-
ture and the perpendicular should be both infinite, and thus the quantity

1
MIN would be equal to zero.

Let us examine, then, the second hypothesis, that, namely, of an asymptote paral-
lel to the axis of revolution. At the point x (Fig. 30) the perpendicular is in-
finite, and the radius of curvature finite, (§26;) at the point where the branch
nuv prolonged would reach the asymptote, on the contrary, the radius of curva-
ture would be infinite, and the perpendicular, which would measure the distance
from that point to the axis, would be finite. In passing, then, from the point
to this extreme point, the perpendicular, at first superior in length to the radius
of curvature, would afterwards become inferior to it; whence it follows that
there would be on the curve a point where the perpendicular and the radius of cur-
vature would be equal, and for which consequently the centre of curvature would
be on the axis of revolution. Let a be this point, o the corresponding centre of
curvature, and af a small are of a circle described from the point o as a centre.
One branch of the curve would quit the point a in the same direction and with
the same curvature as the are af, and would then immediately separate from the
latter. Now let us suppose that at its departure from a, the curvature should
at first go on decreasing; the curve will, at commencing, be necessarily exterior
to the are of a circle. Let ay be a small are of this curve, in the whole extent
of which the curvature decreases, and“let the length of the are af be taken

362 FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

equal to that of the are ay. The point 7 will be more remote from the axis than
the point #; and moreover, on account of the inferiority of the curvatures, the
tangent at 7 willform, with this axis, a greater angle than the tangent at 7; the
perpendicular, therefore, at the point 7 will, for this double reason, be longer
than the perpendicular at the point 8. Again, and still by reason of the in-
feriority of curvatures, the radius of curvature at the point 7 will also be longer
than the radius of curvature at the point #; but, at this latter point, these two
quantities have the same value as at the point a. In passing then from.a to 7,
the radius of curvature and the perpendicular will both increase. Now this is
incompatible with the equation of equilibrium; as the curve, throughout the part
which we are considering, turns its concavity towards the axis, the radius of
curvature and the perpendicular have everywhere the same sign, and conse-
quently when one increases the other should diminish, and vice versd. If we
suppose that, at parting from a, the curvature goes on increasing, the are of the
curve will be interior to the are of a circle, and the same mode of reasoning
would enable us to see that from one to the other extremity of the former the
radius of curvature and the perpendicular will both diminish. The hypothesis
of an asymptote parallel to the axis of revolution leading thus to an impossible
result, we see that it must be rejected like the first.

It is the third hypothesis, therefore, which is true; that is to say, the curve
presents two points, p and p’, (Fig. 33,) where the tangent is parallel to the axis
of revolution. ;

§ 31. Experiment fully confirms this theoretical deduction, and furnishes, be-
sides, a suggestion for the discovery of the ulterior course of the curve.

The two disks being placed at any distance from one another—a distance,
for instance, equal to their diameter—we form a cylinder between them, and
then gradually lower the upper disk: the figure then passes, we know, to the
unduloid, and swells more and more till it constitutes portion of a sphere, (Fig.
34.) But if we continue to lower the upper disk, the meridian convexity still
augments, and consequently passes beyond the above point; for a certain ap-
proximation of the disks, we thus obtain, for example, the result represented by
Fig. 35, and the liquid figure is always perfectly stable. Now, in this state, it
ean no longer form part of an unduloid, since the sphere has been exceeded,
which is one of the limits of the variations of that figure, (§ 8.) We may
again lower the disk until, at the points where the meridian line reaches the
borders of the disks, the tangents shall be nearly perpendicular to the axis of
revolution, as is seen in Fig. 36, and for a less mass of oil in Fig. 37. It is
even possible that perpendicularity may be attained ; but it would be very diffi- ~
cult to acquire the assurance of this, because, on the one hand, the eye cannot
judge with sufficient precision of the direction of these extreme tangents, and,
on the other, the liquid figure, at this degree of approximation of the disks,
loses its stability; if we depress a little too much the upper disk, the oil is
observed to be transferred in greater mass to one side of the axis of the system,
so that the figure ceases to be one of revolution; then, on this same side, the
oil overflows the borders of the disks, and spreads in part on their exterior
faces.

Fig. 34 Pig. 33 Fig, 36 Tig. 37

eS
————————
_

Now, in virtue of what has been stated in the preceding paragraph, so long
as the curve, at parting from m, (Fig. 33,) continues to withdraw from the axis
of revolution, the radius of curvature eannot become equal to the perpendicular,
and since it is inferior to it at , must remain inferior to it so long as the point

ae,

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 363

pis not attained; in the whole extent, then, of the are » ~ p, except at the point
n, and perhaps at the point p, to which the demonstration does not extend, the
centre of curvature is always situated between the curve and the axis, and con-
sequently the curvature is always stronger than that of a circumference of a
circle having its centre on the axis. But, as we have just seen, in the partial
liquid figures represented by Figs. 35, 36, and 37, the meridian curvatures are
stronger than when the figure is a portion of a sphere, or, in other words,
stronger than that of a circumference of a circle passing by the borders of the
disks and having its centre on the axis. From this it is clear that these partial
figures constitute portions of the complete figure generated by an are of the
meridian linc extending on both sides of the point p, (Fig. 33 ;) only they re-
late evidently to different-cases of that complete figure which we know to be
susceptible of variations like the unduloid.

§ 32. We will take one more step in pursuit of our meridian line. In the
above experiments, when the densities of the two liquids are rendered quite
equal, the oil figure is always perfectly symmetrical in relation to its equatorial
circle. It is by the eye, indeed, that we thus judge, and it might be supposed,
perhaps, that this symmetry is but approximate; but we shall proceed to
show that it is exact. In the absence of all accidental cause of irregularity,
there would be evidently no reason why an excess of curvatures should exist
rather on one definite side of the equator than the other, since the two disks
_ are equal and parallel ; whence it results that there is necessarily a form of
equilibrium in which the symmetry is perfect. But if, in the partial figures
realized—figures which are stable—symmetry were but approximated, it would
be necessary to admit that the exactly symmetrical form of equilibrium just
spoken of would be unstable. If, then, all the liquid figures which can be
obtained in the experiments described above, that is to say, in those which give
all the degrees of depression of the disk from the case of Fig. 34 to that of
Fig. 36, and all the masses greater and smaller with the same disks—if, I say,
all these figures were symmetrical only in appearance, there would correspond
to each of them another figure of equilibrium differing extremely little, and
which would be unstable. Now, the existence of two partial figures of equi-
librium extremely near, the one stable and the other unstable, may well occur
in a particular case of the variations of two complete figures, or, at least, of one
of them, and we have seen an example (§§ 20 and 21) in regard to the contrac-
tion of an unduloid, when that contraction closely approximates the partial
catenoid of greatest height; but we can comprehend that it is impossible for the
same thing to be reproduced in the whole extent of the variations of the partial
figure realized. Hence we conclude that, in the liquid figures of the preceding
paragraphs, the symmetry is real, and that, in one complete meridian line, there
is thus, besides the axis of symmetry of the node, another axis of symmetry
equally perpendicular to the axis of revolution, and passing by the. point p,
(Fig. 33.) Consequently, all that the curve presents on one side of this point,
it should present symmetrically on the other; the node which exists above p
must have its corresponding node below, and since the two have respectively
their axis of symmetry, it necessarily results that, in the first place, they are
perfectly identical, and, in the second place, that all that is found on one side
of one of them must be identically reproduced on the other side; whence it
follows that above the upper node there is another like it, and above the last
still another, and so on indefinitely along the axis of revolution, while the same
thing occurs below the inferior node, all being connected by ares equally identi-
eal with one another. An extended portion of this curve is represented at Fig.
38, in which the axis of ‘revolution A B is placed horizontally.

The figure generated by this curve is thus prolonged indefinitely in the
direction of the axis, like the cylinder and unduloid. We will give to this also
a name, and will call it the nodoid. It should be observed that this figure being,

364 FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

equally with the unduloid, susceptible of variations between certain limits, Fig.
38 should be regarded only as presenting one case of its meridian line. We

LeY. o8

will? urther recall the observation made in § 29, and which will now be better
understood from the appearance of this curve, namely, that the complete figure
can only be represented in the state of a simple surface, since, if it were supposed
to be full, there would evidently be parts of it engaged in the mass.

§ 33. Before we proceed to the consideration of the nodoid in its variations,
a question should be resolved which is suggested by the experiments of § 31.
Since we know now the form of the meridian line, we see that those experiments
realize the portion of the nodoid generated by a part, more or less considerable,
of one of the ares convex towards the exterior, such as xpn’, (Fig. 38.)
But it may be asked if this does not require that, with disks of a given diameter,
the volume of oil should be comprised within certain limits, so that for larger or
smaller volumes the figure realized would no longer pertain to the nodoid. To
determine this, let us take one of the figures realized, follow the meridian are
beyond the point where it meets the edge of one of the disks—the upper one, for
instance—and let us see whether it be possible to arrive at a curve other than
the meridian line of a nodoid.

We will suppose, first, that in that part of its course where it continues to
approach the axis of revolution, and to withdraw from the axis of symmetry,
the curve presents a point of inflexion, so that it shall afterwards turn its con-
vexity towards those two axes. If, while still approaching the first, it changed
a second time the direction of its curvature, the perpendicular corresponding to
this second point of inflexion would necessarily be shorter than the perpendicular
corresponding to the first, since it would have less obliquity, and would proceed
from a point nearer the axis. But this is incompatible with the equation of
equilibrium; for this equation being reduced at all the points of inflexion to

1
N =O, the two above perpendicwlars must be equal. The existence of this

second point of inflexion being thus impossible, we see that beyond the first, the
curve, which cannot (§ 2) attain the axis of revolution, must necessarily either
tend towards an asymptote parallel to that axis, or else present at a finite dis-
tance a point where the tangent shall be parallel to the same axis.

That the first of these two conditions must be rejected is at once obvious;
for at the extreme point where the curve would touch the asymptote the radius
of curvature would be infinite, which would again reduce the equation of

1
equilibrium at that point to noo and the perpendicular would there also be

evidently shorter than at the point of inflexion. In the second case, the point
where the tangent would become parallel to the axis of revolution cannot, on
account of the evident inequality of the perpendiculars, be a second point of
inflexion. It would then constitute a minimum of distance to the axis, and con-
sequently a small are extending on both sides of this minimum would generate
a constriction which might be realized between two equal rings or disks. Now
we have discussed all the possible partial figures of that nature. We have
seen that every constricted portion pertains either to an unduloid or a catenoid,
or to the part of a nodoid, which encompasses the summit of a nodus; but we

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 365

know that the convex partial figure with which we started is not portion of an
unduloid, since its convexity exceeds the sphere; it is perceptible that it is
not portion of a catenoid, and from what precedes we see that the above con-
traction cannot be portion of a node.

Thus our original hypothesis of a point of inflexion in the part of the curve
which is withdrawing from the axis of symmetry and approaching the axis of
revolution leads inevitably to impossibilities, and, consequently, the curve
maintains the same direction of curvature until it deviates from those conditions.
But to do so it is evidently necessary that it should first cease to withdraw
from the axis of symmetry, or, in other terms, that it should present a point
where the tangent is parallel to that axis. Neither is this point one of inflexion,
for the perpendicular and the radius of curvature would there be both infinite,

La
which would annul the. quantity MON Beyond this point, then, the curve

redescends towards the axis of symmetry, still preserving the direction of its
curvature. Further, this same direction is maintained, as we shall show, so long
as the curve continues to descend. In effect the liquid of the partial figure
realized, and which has served us for a point of departure, being situated in the
concavity of the curve, we readily see that at all the points of our descending
branch the perpendicular is negative. But if this branch contained a point of

N ?
and consequently, on account of the sign of the perpendicular, would be also
negative; while on the meridian are of the realized partial figure the radius of

1
inflexion the quantity MN would be reduced at that point to the term =

it
curvature and the perpendicular being both positive, the quantity Me N® itself

positive.

But the branch in question cannot descend indefinitely by still approaching
the axis of revolution, or, in other terms, cannot tend toward an asymptote par-
allel to that axis; for, at the point situated at infinity on the asymptote, the

i | 1
quantity MIN would again be reduced to the term y’ and consequevtly would

be again negative ; it is necessary, therefore, that one branch should pass at a
minimum of distance from the axis of revolution, and should thus form the
generating arc of a constriction; and as this constricted portion could pertain
neither to the unduloid nor the catenoid, it necessarily constitutes the summit
of a node of the nodoid. We must recur, therefore, to the meridian line of the
nodoid, and conclude that all the figures obtained in the experiments of § 31
are partial nodoids, whatever the degree of approximation of the disks, pro-
vided the spherical curvature be overpassed, and whatever the volume of oil in
relation to the diameter of the disks.

§ 34. We are now in a position to consider what is the nature and what the
limits of the variations of the nodoid. Since, in the experiments of § 31, we
pass by a portion of a sphere, after which, as has been just seen, the partial
nodoid is immediately realized, and since the latter then varies continually until
it reaches the phase at which instability commences, it is obvious that the por-
tion of a sphere constitutes one of the limits of these variations, and that hence
the limit of the corresponding variations of the complete nodoid is an inde-
finite series of equal spheres, having their centres on the axis. But it will
readily be perceived that the only possible mode of continuous variation «
tending towards that limit is the following : in proportion as the complete nodoid
approaches the series of spheres, the dimensions of the nodes as well as the
distance of their summits from the axis diminish more and more, while the cur-
vature of the ares which connect these nodes verges towards that of the cir-

366 FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

cumference of a circle having its centre on this same axis ; finally, at the limit,
the nodes entirely disappear, and the above ares become so many demi-cireum-
ferences, tangents one to the other. The spheres, therefore, generated by these
semi-circumferences are tangents also, and hence it results that one of the limits
of the variations of the nodoid is an indefinite series of equal spheres, which
touch each other upon the axis. We already know (§ 8) that a similar series
of spheres constitutes one of the limits of the variations of the unduloid, so
that this limit is common to the two figures, and forms consequently the transi-
tion from one to thc other; this is likewise shown by the experiments of § 31,
since, in passing from the cylinder to the portion of a sphere, the figure realized
always pertains to the unduloid. The meridian line of a nodoid, but little re-
mote from the limit just ascertained, is represented by Fig. 39.

#ug. 39

§ 35. The variations of the nodoid have a second and very remarkable limit.
Let us realize, by the process explained in § 27, the portion of a nodoid gene-
rated by an isolated node; let us suppose, moreover, that we successively repeat
the experiment with solid rings of constantly increasing size, and that we so
modify the volume of oil that the length of the meridian node, that is, the dis-
tance from its summit to its point, shall remain the same. When the diameter
of the solid ring is very considerable, the perpendiculars corresponding to the
different points of the node will be all very large, so that at all these points

1 :
the term 35 of the equation of equilibrium will be very small, and we perceive
that this term will tend towards zero in proportion as the diameter of the solid

1 P
ring tends towards infinity ; but it cannot be thus with the term w for if this

last also tended towards zero, the liquid figure would have for a limit of its varia-
tions the catenoid, which is evidently impossible under the conditions implied—
that is to say, when the node is of constant length; we can always, then, im-
agine the solid ring so large that at all points of the meridian node the term

F
N shall be very small relatively to the term a The latter, which expresses

the meridian curvature, should now, in virtue of the equation of equilibrium,
vary very little on the whole contour of the node, and consequently this will
closely approximate to the circumference of a circle. It is clear that, in this
case, the curvature of the ares which connect the consecutive nodes of the
complete meridian line will also be very nearly constant, and of the same order

1
with that of the nodes, for the term N will be also very small on the arcs in

question. From this we perceive that the consecutive nodes of the meridian
line will encroach upon one another, and that hence for a certain large diameter
of the solid ring this line will have the form partially represented at Fig. 40.
In this figure the axis of revolution is not indicated, because it is situated at
too great a distance.

If we imagine the diameter of the ring still further enlarged, the meridian
curvature will still more nearly approach uniformity ; the nodes will be more
nearly circular and will more closely encroach on one another; finally, at the

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 367

: , Mire trices
limit of such increase, when the diameter becomes infinite, the term N will com-
pletely disappear for all points of the meridian line; which, as regards this entire
eel 1 :
line, will reduce the equation of equilibrium to uM C; the radius of curvature
Bt

will be then strictly constant, and we shall arrive at*this singular result, that the
total meridian line will be condensed into a single circumference of a circle ; and
as the latter will be situated at an infinite distance from the axis of revolution,
we perceive that the figure generated will be simply a cylinder. Thus the
second limit of the variations of the nodoid is the cylinder; but this cylinder is
placed transversely in relation to the axis of the nodoid from which it is derived,
. and that axis is infinitely removed from it; while the cylinder which forms the
second limit of the variations of the unduloid (§8) has for its axis that of the
latter figure.

§ 36. For the partial realization of a nodoid whose complete meridian line
shall be of the kind represented by Fig. 40, it is not necessary that the absolute

Lig. 40

PRERRRERRR
DY) 9)
CL )

TRIN
LD)

Hl

a>
Kes

diameter of the solid ring should be very considerable; it is sufficient that this
diameter be large relatively to the length of the meridian node. For, if we
reflect that, in this latter, the curvature continues to diminish (§ 26) from the
summit to the points where the tangents are parallel to the axis of symmetry,
and that, from thence to the other extremity of the node, it is less than at those
points, we shall perceive that if the leagth of this same node is small in relation
to the radius of the solid ring, its width will be still smaller, and that at its
summit the radius of curvature will be extremely small in comparison with the
distance from that summit to the centre of the ring, a distance which constitutes

the perpendicular. At the summit, then, the term V will be inconsiderable in

Te. ae
regard to the term ‘i and the value of the quantity MN will depend chiefly

cb ! :
on that of x? but it is at the summit that the perpendicular is least; therefore,
upon the rest of the node and upon the arcs which unite this node with the
pbeegee Pie :
nodes neighboring on the complete meridian line, the term > will have still less

influence, and consequently, in the whole extent of that line, the curvature will
vary but slightly.

The liquid ring momentarily obtained in a solid ring 70 millimetres in diame-
ter, by piercing a disk reduced almost to a film, (2d series, § 19,) constitutes a
partial nodoid of the kind which we are considering; this liquid ring has, in
effect, but little size relatively to the radius of the solidring. It is also evidently
a concave portion of a nodoid of this kind which we realize in the experiments
of § 25, when the disks are very near one another, and we stop the exhaustion
of oil at the point where the extreme elements of the meridian are are sloped on
the faces of the disks at their borders. Such, too, is the figure realized in the
experiments of § 31, when the distance of the disks is very small and. the extreme
elements of the meridian are are inclined as nearly as possible on the prolonga-
tions of the solid faces. Here, however, the meridian are does not appertain to

368 FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

one single node: it is formed, as will be seen by Fig. 40, of the are which unites
two consecutive nodes and of two portions of the latter.

§ 37. The variations of the nodoid, finally, have, like those of the unduloid,
a third limit, which is disclosed by the same experiments that have led us to a
knowledge of the nodoid itself. In the experiments of §§ 20 and 22, when, after
having formed a cylinder between two rings placed at a less distance than % of
their diameter, we progressively remove some of the liquid, the partial figure,
as we have seen, becomes first an unduloid, then by degrees attains the catenoid,
after which it immediately passes into the nodoid; whence it evidently follows
that the catenoid is one of the limits of the variations of the nodoid, and, more-
over, that it constitutes a new transition from the latter to the unduloid. We
have already recognized (§ 34) another, consisting in an indefinite succession of
spheres.

Phe third limit, then, of the variations of the nodoid is the catenoid, and it is
easily made apparent how the figure becomes thus modified. If we consider
that the experiments just spoken of realize the portion of the nodoid generated
by an are pertaining to a node, and presenting its concavity externally, we shall
thence conclude that the portion of the nodoid which passes into the catenoid
is that which is generated by one of the nodes, whose summit becomes that of
the meridian catena. 'This being premised, let us conceive that each of the nodes
of the complete meridian line becomes gradually modified to arrive at the catena,
and let us imagine, for the sake of distinctnéss, that, during all these modifica-
tions, the distance of the summits from the axis of revolution remains constant.

, aot HORT
In proportionas the nodes approach the catena the quantity Mo N tends towards
zero, but on all the ares which unite the nodes with one another the quantities
I es ;
M and N are of the same sign, and consequently the quantity Mon” relation to

these ares cannot tend towards zero unless M and N tend at the same time
towards infinity; all the points, then, of these ares will withdraw indefinitely
from the axis of revolution, while their curvature becomes at the same time
indefinitely weaker; whence it follows that the extremities of the nodes will
withdraw further and further from the axis, while, by the increasing develop-
ment of the intermediate ares, which, from the nature of the curve, evidently
cannot diminish in curvature without acquiring greater extension, the nodes
will separate more and more from one another, until, at the limit, they are all
infinitely distant and infinitely elongated. If, then, we consider one in partic-
ular, the whole curve will be reduced to that one alone, and, on the other hand,
its extremity or point will have disappeared, and it will be found to be trans-
formed into the meridian line of a catenoid, that is to say into a catena.

§ 38. A last question now presents itself: Are there other figures of equili-
brium of revolution besides those of which we have thus far recognized the ex-
istence? All these last are such that portions of them can always be comprised
between two equal and parallel disks. Now our experiments have exhausted
all the combinations of that kind; whence we must conclude that if there were
still other figures, they would be of such a nature as not to be capable of fulfilling
that condition, and, for that, it would evidently be necessary that their meridian
lines should present no point whose distance from the axis of revolution would
be a maximum ora minimum. As these lines, moreover, could not reach the
axis, (§ 2,) they must continue always to leave it, from a first point situated at
infinity on an asymptote parallel to that axis, up to another point situated like-
wise at infinity. This being so, at the first of these two extreme points, the
radius of curvature would be necessarily infinite, while the perpendicular would

BH 1
be finite, and the equation of equilibrium would be reduced tox=C; but from

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY 369

this it results that the curvature could nowhere change its direction: for if
there were a point of inflexion, the equation of equilibrium would be there also

ft
reduced to no: and consequently the perpendiculars at the above first ex-

treme point, and at the point of inflexion, would be equal, which is evidently
impossible. Therefore, the curve being free from all undulation, the curvature
would necessarily tend towards zero, or, what amounts to the same, the radius
of curvature would tend towards infinity in approaching the second extreme

point, so that at that point the term iM would disappear as at the former, which

would require, as before, the impossible equality of the two perpendiculars.

The sole figures, therefore, of equilibrium of revolution of a liquid mass with-
drawn from the action of gravity are those at which we have arrived in the
second and in the present series, namely: the sphere, the plane, the cylinder,
the unduloid, the catenoid, and the nodoid. All these figures, with the excep-
tion of the sphere, having infinite dimensions in certain directions, it results
that, among the figures of equilibrium of revolution, it is only the sphere which
can be realized in a complete state witha finite mass of liquid; hence, as we
have seen, it is always the spherical form which is assumed by a mass of oil
abandoned to itself in our alcoholic mixture.

ff

[TO BE CONTINUED IN THE NEXT REPORT.]

24 8

ARTIFICIAL SHELL-DEPOSITS IN NEW JERSEY.

BY CHARLES RAU, OF NEW YORK.

Ir has frequently been observed that there exists a certain resemblance be-
tween archeology and geology, notwithstanding the different character of the
results obtained by these sciences, and the parallelism which they exhibit is
really of suflicient distinctness to justify a comparison. By examining the
petrified remains of animals and plants that are found in the layers composing
the crust of the earth the geologist determines the different phases in the history
of our planet; while the student of archzology, in endeavoring to throw light
on the former condition of mankind, has to rely in a great measure on the ruins
of buildings, on earthworks, implements of various kinds, organic remains, and
other traces left by those who passed away long ago from the scene of life.
But even in the results of the two sciences the analogy is not entirely wanting,
in so far as the geologist, though succeeding in establishing the relative age of
the strata, is unable to determine with any degree of certainty the time that
was required to form the stony shells surrounding our globe; and in treating
of ante-historic periods, the archzologist, likewise, is at a loss to fix the period
when a people existed, of whose conditions of life, manners, and domestic
habits he can give the most satisfactory account. I will mention in this place
only two recent discoveries in archeology, namely, the lacustrine villages of Switz-
erland, Italy, and Germany, and the Kjoekkenmoeddings or refuse-heaps occur-
ring on the Danish islands. In both cases we obtain, by the minute researches
and ingenious conclusions of scientific investigators, a knowledge of certain
populations concerning whom history is entirely silent; and while we have be-
come acquainted with their character and manner of living, we neither know
their names, nor are we able to determine the period when they inhabited those
places which abound with tokens of their former existence. The lake-dwell-
ings as well as the Kjoekkenmoeddings have been described in the Smithsonian
publications* and elsewhere, and it would be useless to enlarge here on these
subjects; but as I intend in this sketch to treat of American remains similar
to the Kjoekkenmoeddings, I will merely devote a few words to the latter memo-
rials of antiquity. On the coasts of the Danish islands and along the fjords of
Jutland there occur extensive heaps of shells, mostly of the oyster, which were
considered for a long time as formations of the sea, until of late their artificial
character was established by Danish savans, who proved them to be the accu-
mulated refuse of the repasts of a people that dwelt in former ages, beyond the
record of history, on the shores of these islands. 3

The indications of the artificial origin of these shell-heaps chiefly consist in
a total absence of stratification which always characterizes marine deposits, and
in the fact that the rubbish contains rude flint implements, fragments of coarse
pottery, fireplaces, charcoal, cinders, and the bones of various animals, some
of which are now extinct in those parts, as for instance the urus, (Bos urus
or primigenius,) beaver, and auk or penguin, (Alca impennis, Lin.) But
neither bronze nor iron has been discovered in these places, from which it may
be inferred that the inhabitants were unacquainted with the use of metals, and

* Annual Smithsonian Reports for 1860 and 1861.

ARTIFICIAL SHELL-DEPOSITS IN NEW JERSEY. 371

belonged to that remote period which is called ‘the age of stone” by the arche
ologists of Europe.

From the islands of the Baltic sea I will now turn to the shores of New
Jersey.

While spending, during the summers of 1863 and 1864, some weeks at Key-
port, Monmouth county, New Jersey, a small town situated on Raritan bay, I
examined within the precincts and in the neighborhood of that place several
shell-deposits which are unmistakably artificial and the caeuiiagle of the In-
dians who formerly inhabited this region.* These deposits evidently owe their
origin to the same causes which produced the Danish Kjoekkenmoeddings, to
which they correspond in all essential points, constituting accumulations of cast-
away shells, which sometimes merely form a more or less dense covering of the
sandy surface, but also in a few instances beds or layers intermingled with sand
and pebbles, in which case they assume the shape of irregular hillocks or
mounds.

The shell-deposits of Keyport indicate the places where the aborigines were
accustomed to feast upon the spoils of the neighboring beach, remarkable for
its abundance of oysters, clams, and other eatable mollusks. They selected for
this purpose favorably situated localities at some distance from the shore, and
sufficiently elevated to be out of reach of high tide; and in a few cases that
fell under my notice, the shell-beds are contiguous to creeks which run into the
beach and probably afforded the means of transporting the supply of shell-fish
in canoes from the sea directly to the place of encampment. ‘The principal
food of the aboriginal coast-population was evidertly furnished by the common

ster ( Ostrea borealis, De Kay) and the hard-shell clam ( Venus mercenaria,
Gin. ) for their valves, partly very old and frequently broken, constitute almost
entirely these accumulations of shells; but the common periwinkle (Pyrula
canaliculata and P. carica, De Kay) is also often met, and was probably eaten
by the aborigines, as it is at present by some of their Caucasian successors.
I found only two or three specimeas of the soft-shell clam (Mya arenaria,
Lin.) among the shell-heaps, and none of the common black mussel ( Mytilus
edulis, Lin.) The last-named species, however, does not occur in great num-
bers in the neighborhood of Keyport, and the soft-shell clam has, as its name
indicates, very thin and perishable valves, the fragments of which may lie buried
among the thicker and more durable shells of the other mollusks. It would
be rash, therefore, to suppose the soft-shell clam had been excluded from the
bill of fare of the Indians. Among these remains of mollusks the broken bones
of animals are occasionally met with, though generally in such an advanced
state of decay that their character can no longer be determined; for, owing to
the non-conservative quality of the sand which surrounds them, they have be-
_ come entirely destitute of animal matter, and will almost crumble to pieces
when handled for examination. ‘The direct evidences of the occupancy of these
places by the Indians are not wanting, and consist of numerous fragments of
pottery and stone implements of the usual kind, otherwise very scarce in this
part of New Jersey.

By far the most extensive shell-bed I had an opportunity to examine occurs
on the farm of Mr. George Poole, situated a mile and a half northeast of Key-
port, and about three quarters of a mile south of a small projection of the coast
known as Conaskonck Point. The road leading from Keyport to the village
of Union passes through the farm lands, which occupy an area of ninety acres.
This locality was doubtless for many generations the abiding place, or at least
the periodical resort, of the Indians, and traces of their former presence in the

* My attention was first directed to these aboriginal remains by the Rev. Samuel Lock-
wood, a scientific gentleman of Keyport, who had recognized their true character before I
mnade any investigations.

-

v2 ARTIFICIAL SHELL-DEPOSITS IN NEW JERSEY.

oo

shape of cast-away shells, arrow-points, and broken pottery, may be discovered
almost in every field belonging to the farm. Their principal camping-ground,
however, was situated close to the road already mentioned, and is indicated by
the dark dotted space on the accompanying plan. Here we have a Kjoekkenmoed-
ding in the real sense of the word. Seen from a distance, this place has almost
the appearance of a snow-covered
field, owing to the great number
of bleached shells constituting this
deposit, which spreads over an
area of six or seven acres and
forms several extensive heaps or
mounds of an average height of
about five feet. But these heaps
donotexclusively consist of shells:
the latter are mostly imbedded
in sand, probably carried thither
by the action of winds—by eolic
action, as science calls it—and in-
termingled with innumerable peb-
bles representing various mineral
substances, among which those of:
the quartz family seem to pre-
dominate. As in other localities
of the neighborhood, the shells on
this spot are the remains of oys-
ters, hard-shell clams, and peri-
winkles, the last-named kind of
shell-fish being represented, as
elsewhere, by a comparatively
small number of Specimens.
That considerable time was re-
quired to heap up these shells is
evident, and, moreover, indicated
by the chalky, porous appear-
ance and fragility of many ot the valves, while those that were cast away at later
periods exhibit these signs of decay in a far less degree, and are even sometimes
as sound as though they had but lately been left on the shore by high water.
A great number of the shells are broken, especially those of clams, which seem
to be more brittle than oyster shells. This breaking into fragments is caused by
the sudden changes of temperature, in consequence of which the valves crack and
ultimately fall to pieces. Concerning the depth of this deposit, I learned that
about twelve years ago several hundred loads of shells were taken away from
a certain spot for making a road. The excavation thus prodnced reached
about eight feet downward, and the mass was found to consist throughout that
depth of shells, sand, and pebbles. My own diggings, which were, however,
ofa more superficial character, led to the same result. This shell-bed is about
half a mile distant from the shore at low tide, and the intervening area con-
sists chiefly of so-called salt-meadow. In transporting the shell-fish to the
camping place it is probable that the aborigines availed themselves of a small
nameless creek (marked a on the plan) running towards the sea, west of the
shell-bed, and not very distant from it. This creek, though rather narrow, is
suiliciently deep for canoe navigation during high water, and joins the mere
considerable Conaskonck creek, which flows into the beach. There was, con-
sequently, a water connexion between the sea and the camp. The space en-
closed by a dotted line on the accompanying plan indicates the continuation,
or rather the running out, of the shell-bed just described; for here the shells

ARTIFICIAL SHELL-DEPOSITS IN NEW JERSEY. 373

are by far less numerous, and form no longer heaps, but lie thinly scattered
over the ground, which is partly under cultivation, and swampy in some
places, as marked in the drawing, by which it is only intended to show ap-
proximately the location and extent of the deposit.

By searching among these shell-heaps and in the adjacent fields I obtained
more than three hundred specimens of Indian manufacture, consisting of stone
axes, arrow and spear-points of different shapes, flint knives, and many pieces
of broken -crockery. The tomahawks, which consist of greenstone or sand-
stone, are of the usual shape, and encircled with a groove for attaching them
to a handle. The material of the arrow and spear-heads is either flint, com-
mon quartz, greenstone, or a kind of dark slate. ‘The specimens made of the
two last-named mineral substances have a rather clumsy appearance, owing to
the roughness of the material; but those wrought of flint are mostly well
shaped and present pretty good samples of aboriginal art. That the manu-
facture of arrow-heads was carried on in this place is evident from the great
number of flint chips which lie scattered among the shells; and, moreover, IL
picked up several unfinished arrows, which were thrown aside as useless in
consequence of a flaw or wrong crack, or some other irregularity in the mate-
rial. ‘These specimens are in so far interesting as they illustrate the process
of arrow-making. The fragments of pottery which I collected here consist
of a dark clay, either mixed with coarse sand, or pure, and for the most part
rather slightly burnt ; some of the sherds still bear the ornamental lines and
notches cut in the surface of the vessels. The mixing of the clay with
pounded shells does not seem to have been practiced by the Indians of this
region. I found also a fragment of an apparently large vessel cut out of a
talcose stone. A few clay beads were picked up on the spot, but I did not
obtain any of them.

The last Indians who visited periodically the neighborhood of Keyport, even
within the recollection of old people, belonged, according to the statement of
my informant, to the tribe of Narragansetts. They made their appearance
every year and caught shell-fish, which they dried for winter use. ‘Their en-
campment, however, was not on the spot of which I have given a description,,
but in Pleasant Valley, a little less than four miles south of Keyport.

I am informed that similar shell-beds occur on Long Island, where the
neighboring farmers use the shells for burning lime. Two centuries and a
quarter ago the Dutch colonists of Manhattan island made the same use of the
shells heaped up by the Indians of that locality. 'The account of New Neth-
erland given by the Jesuit missionary Isaac Jogues, contains the following:
passage relative to the subject :

‘There are some houses built of stone; lime they make of oyster shells, great heaps of
20

which are found here, made tormerly by the savages, who subsist in part by that fishery.’
Sir Charles Lyell saw on St. Simon’s island, near the mouth of the Alta-

maha river, in Georgia, large Indian shell-mounds, of which he gives the fol~
lowing description :

‘¢ We landed on the northeast end of St. Simon’s island, at Cannon’s Point, where we were:
gratified by the sight of a curious monument of the Indians, the largest mound of shells left
by the aborigines in any one of the sea islands. Here are no less than ten acres of ground,
elevated in some places ten teet, and on an average over the whole area five feet, above the
general level, composed throughout that depth of myriads of cast oyster shells, with some
mussels, and here and there a modiola and helix. They who have seen the Monte Testaceo,

* Memoir of a Captivity among the Mohawk Indians, a Description of New Netherland
in 164243, and other Papers, by Father Isaac Jogues, of the Society of Jesus, with a
Memoir of the Author, by John Gilmary Shea, (New York, 1857,) p. 57. In the original the
passage runs thus: ‘Il y a quelques logis bastys de pierre; ils font la chaux avec des
coquilles d’huistres dont il y a de grans monceaux faits autrefois p les sauvages, qui vivent
en partie de cette pesche.”

374 ARTIFICIAL SHELL-DEPOSITS IN NEW JERSEY.

near Rome, know what great results may proceed from insignificant causes where the cumu-
lative power of time has been at work, so that a hill may be formed out of the broken pot-
tery rejected by the population of a large city. To them it will appear unnecessary to infer,
as some antiquaries have done, from the magnitude of these Indian mounds, that they must
have been thrown up by the sea. In refutation of such an hypothesis, we have the fact that
flint arrow-heads, stone axes, and fragments of Indian pottery have been detected through-
out the mass.’’ *

The same author noticed shell-deposits on the coasts of Massachusetts.
During his voyage round the world Mr. Darwin saw shell-heaps in the
island of Terra del Fuego. He says:

‘‘The inhabitants, living chiefly upon shell-fish, are obliged constantly to change their
place of residence; but they return at intervals to the same spots, as is evident from the
piles of old shells, which must often amount to many tons in weight. These heaps can be
distinguished at a long distance by the bright green color of certain plants which invariably
grow on them.” t

We may expect to meet with artificial shell-accumulations, or at least traces
of them, almost in all parts of the American coasts where an aboriginal popt-
lation existed, and they have already been found in various places besides
those mentioned, as for instance in Newfoundland and in California, and we
shall doubtless hear of further discoveries as soon as proper attention is paid
to these memorials of the native inhabitants of the American continent.

The occurrence of the Danish refuse-heaps, whose age is lost In the dawn
of history, and of similar comparatively recent deposits in America, shows
that the conditions of existence of those Baltic islanders and the American
coast inhabitants were essentially the same, and furnishes a striking illustra-
tion of the similarity in the development of man in both hemispheres. A
thorough investigation of the American shell-mounds will not only enable us
to compare them more minutely with the corresponding remains of Europe,
but may, possibly, disclose important facts relative to the former condition of
the American race, and thus enlarge our stock of ethnological knowledge.

* A Second Visit to the United States of America, by Sir Charles Lyell, (New York, 1849, )
vol. i, p. 252.
t Journal of Researches, &c., by Charles Darwin, (New York, 1846,) vol. i, p. 272.

THE INTERMIXTURE OF RACES.

BY GEORGE GIBBS.

Tue subject of the intermixture of races, and its result as affecting the
physical development of the ensuing progeny, is one of the most interesting
in anthropology, especially in its bearing upon the question of the unity of the
human family. Yet, so far as this continent is concerned, it has nowhere re-
ceived the thorough, systematic, and conscientious investigation which it deserves.
What observations have been made, are, so far as I have seen, confined to the
union of whites and negroes. Even as to Mexico, where the mixed races form
so large a part of the population, the inquiry seems to have been generally
neglected.

During a residence in Oregon, commencing in 1849, before the great influx
of American emigrants, and when the proportion of half-breeds to the fur-traders
and other early settlers was easily perceivable, my attention was drawn to the
fact that, notwithstanding the long intercourse of these with native women,
their offspring formed but a small element in the community. Being anxious
to ascertain whether this was due to a taint common among the coast tribes and
other causes of merely local influence, or whether it was of general extension
through the northern and temperate parts of America, I subsequently addressed
a letter to the Right Reverend Bishop Taché, of the Red River Settlement, the
substance of which, and his reply, is given below. In the case of the white
and black races, the weight of testimony is certainly unfavorable to the health
and longevity of the offspring, and the impression has been general that this
was also the case with Indian half-breeds, at least in the northern temperate
climates. Any trustworthy observations on this question are, therefore, import-
ant, and the testimony of that gentleman is beyond cavil. It is hoped that
this communication may lead to investigation among the civilized tribes of the
west, the Cherokees, Choctaws, and Creeks.

I should premise that syphilis has long prevailed in the coast region of Ore-
gon, that is to say, in the country west of the Cascade range, it having been
noticed by Lewis and Clarke as early as 1806. The erotic temperament of these
tribes, common to all people whose food is chiefly fish, coupled with the absence
of moral restraint, has tended to disseminate it widely, and thus been one
cause of the dying out of the aborigines. Its effects, owing to climate, food,
and general mode of life, are less fatal, it is true, in the first instance than
among some other nations, but they show themselves in the prevalence of
serofulous diseases, in the diminished number of children, and in their early
death.

This state of facts, however, applies less to the case of the half-breeds than
to the unmixed Indians, for the reason that the selections of the whites were
usually from the better class of females, and to a considerable extent from the
interior tribes, where disease is far less common. The fathers themselves were
of three races, Scotch, Canadian French, and Americans, all hardy and vigorous
men; their families were, of course, better fed and cared for than those of the
savages; the climate is proverbially healthy, and yet this mixed population bas
not increased as might have been expected.

376 THE INTERMIXTURE OF RACES.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, D. C., June 17, 1862.

REVEREND AND DEAR SiR: Being engaged in the preparation of a work on the Indians
of Northwestern America, among whom I have resided a number of years, I am desirous
of comparing my observations on some points of vital statistics with those of other parts
of the country. Among these the question of intermarriage of the two races is prominent, °
and I take the liberty of applying to you for information upon it.

As a general thing the metifs of Oregon have been short-lived, and it is at once noticeable
that in the length of time which has elapsed since the entrance of the fur-traders into ‘that

' country, (a half century,) and the great number of marriages that have taken place with
native women, only a very small indigenous mixed population has sprung up. Yet at the
same time the half-breeds who arrive there from the Red River country appear healthy, and

' the men strong and able-bodied. The cause of mortality does not arise from vice only, for
it is noticeable in the families of the better class, as well as among the lower. As regards.
the intermarriage of Oregon half-breeds among themselves, I do not know a single case
where they have left offspring. You, on the other hand, have a large mixed population,
and they must, of course, intermarry. They have the reputation of being a hardy, athletic,
aud vigorous people, and I am curious to know in what the difference, if any there is, con-
sists.

Will you, therefore, be kind enough to inform me, as nearly as possible, as follows:

1. The actual number of the mixed race in the Red River colony.

2. The average duration of life by estimation, if not otherwise attainable absolutely, and
as compared with that of white settlers.

3. Whether instances of prolonged life are frequent -

4, Whether there seems a marked difference in longevity between men and women.

5. Whether marriages between metifs are common; and if so, whether they are as
prolific as those between white persons, or between Indians; and whether the offspring
of such intermarriages are as vigorous and long-lived as the results of the first cross of the
two races.

6. Whether this class of population is increasing, and likely to result in a permanent
mixed race or variety of the human species. This question is the more interesting, as I
suppose your pure white settlers to be a fair-haired race, which has in general not crossed
as well with the Indians as the darker nations, such as the Spanish and Portuguese, and
because mixed races seem always to have thriven better in warm than in temperate or cold
climates.

I am, reverend and dear sir, very respectfully,
GEORGE GIBBS.

Right Rev. Bishop Tacu&.

DIOCESE OF ST. BONIFACE, Rep RIVER SETTLEMENT,
Hudson’s Bay Territory, July 21, 1862.

* Dear Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your interesting favor of the
17th ultimo, which duly came to hand by the last mail. You certainly have no need of
apology for having addressed me on the points mentioned in your letter. I only regret my
inability to satisfy you as fully as I might wish. The burning of my cathedral and palace,
with all the archives of the bishopric, renders it impossible for me to be very precise. The
little information in my possession on the subject I will cheerfully give, trusting that it may
be of help to you in your scientific labors.

I now proceed to answer your questions. The answer to your first query will be found in
the annexed copy of a statistical table from the official census of this settlement taken in
1856.

2d. We have as many instances of longevity among the half-breeds as among the white
population.

3d. Having lost my register, I cannot ascertain the average duration of life here, but I
consider it as about equal to that of the white settlers of this country, and far above that of
the unmixed Indians.

4th. I remark no difference in longevity between the sexes.

5th. We have daily instances of marriages between half-breeds. They generally have
numerous children, who are as long-lived and vigorous as the first crosses of the two races.

6th. This class of population is rapidly increasing, and is sure to result in a permanent
mixed race or variety of the human species, and it is not kept up chiefly by additions from
without.

7th. Fair-haired white settlers have crossed as well with the Indians as those of dark
complexion. No mixed race can ever have thriven better in warm climates than in this
extremely cold one.

THE INTERMIXTURE OF RACES. att

You will easily comprehend by the above answers my utter surprise on seeing your state-
ment about the Oregon half-breeds.
I beg leave to remain, in conclusion, your obedient servant,
+t ALEX. TACHE,
R. C. Bishop of St. Boniface, O. M. Ff.

~
Census of the Red River colony, taken May 20, 1856.

RELIGION. NATIVE COUNTRY. POPULATION,

. a

3S 3 Men. | Women. Boys. Girls.

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3 = SO eesaianlio (Sul malveles Ie eelea ime Sip | lee tide ee 3
al H Ay oO |e [S| Osha eee weet Y |< =) <q =) HB

1856..| 1,095, 553) 542; 40) 13) 119) 92) 1) 828) 2 999) 230) 1,010) 285) 536) 1, 486) 562) 1,583) 6, 691
TSE ge) Ea] Ee cco Se 4c, aed eet ape nc eras cece came il 145 877) 135) 382) 1, 314) 373) 1,292) 5, 391

nicreaseiniy “¥iGars|sces|scs4|o- es |---| menl > deel aces) enol heared bce 144 ce Ie ep Bes Eee 1, 300

AN ACCOUNT

OF

THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS

OF

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA,

AS GIVEN BY

JACOB BAEGERT, A GERMAN JESUIT MISSIONARY, WHO LIVED THERE SEVEN-
TEEN YEARS DURING THE SECOND HALF OF THE LAST CENTURY.

TRANSLATED AND ARRANGED BY CHARLES RAU.

(Continued from the Smithsonian Report for 1863.)
CHAPTER V.—THEIR CHARACTER.

In describing the character of the Californians, I can only say that they are
dull, awkward, rude, unclean, insolent, ungrateful, given to lying, thievish,
lazy, great talkers, and almost like children in their reasoning and actions.
They are a careless, improvident, unreflecting people, and possess no control
over themselves, but follow, in every respect, their natural instincts almost like

' animals.

They are, nevertheless, like all other native Americans, human beings, real
children of Adam, and have not grown out of the earth, or of stones, like moss
and other plants, as a certain impudent, lying freethinker gives to understand.
I, at least, never saw one growing in such a way, nor have I heard of any of
them who originated in that peculiar manner. ~ Like other people, they are pos-
sessed of reason and understanding, and their stupidity is not inborn with
them, but the result of habit; and I am of opinion that, if their young sons
were sent to European seminaries and colleges, and their girls to convents
where young females are instructed, they would prove equal in all respects to
Europeans in the acquirement of morals and of useful sciences and arts, as has
been the case with many young natives of other American provinces. I have
known some of them who learned several mechanical trades in a short time,
often merely by observation; and, on the contrary, others who appeared to me
duller, after twelve or more years, than at the time when I first became ac-
quainted with them. God and nature have endowed these people with gifts
and talents like others; but their rude life hinders the development of these
faculties, and thus they remain awkward, dull, and so slow in their understand-
ings that it requires considerable pains, time, and patience to teach them the
doctrines and precepts of the Christian faith, insomuch that a sentence of only
a few words must be repeated to them twelve times and oftener before they are
capable of reciting it.

It may not be out of place to corroborate here what Father Charlevoix says
of the Canadians, namely, that no one should think an Indian is convinced of
what he has heard because he appears to approve of it. He will assent to
anything, even though he has not understood its meaning or reflected upon his
answer, and he so does either on account of his indolence or indifference, or
from motives of selfishness, in order to please the missionary.

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. $79

The Californians do not readily confess a crime unless detected in the act,
because they hardly comprehend the force of evidence, and are not at all
ashamed of lying. A certain missionary sent a native to one of his colleagues
with some loaves of bread and a letter stating their number. The messenger
ate a part of the bread, and his theft was consequently discovered; another
time, when he had to deliver four loaves, he ate two of them, but hid the
accompanying letter under a stone while he was thus engaged, believing that
his conduct would not be revealed this time, as the letter had not seen him in
the act of eating the loaves.

In the mission of St. Borgia the priest ordered his people one day to strew
the way with some green herbs, because he was about to bring the holy sacra-
ment to a sick person, and his order was promptly executed by them, but to
the great damage of the missionary’s kitchen-garden, for they tore up all the
aes salad, and whatever vegetables they found there, and threw them on
the road.

Yet, notwithstanding their incapacity and slow comprehension, they are,
nevertheless, cunning, and show, in many cases, a considerable degree of crafti-
ness. They will sell their poultry to the missionary at the beginning of a
sickness, and afterwards exhibit a disposition to eat nothing but chicken-meat,
till none of the fowls are left in the coop. A prisoner will feign a dangerous
malady and ask for the last sacrament in order to be relieved from his fetters,
and to find, subsequently, a chance to escape. They rob the missionary ina
hundred ways, and sometimes in the most artful manner. If, for instance, one
has pilfered the pantry and left it open in his haste, another one forthwith
requests to be admitted to confession, in order to give the thief time for closing
the door, and thus to remove all cause of suspicion on the part of the mis-
sionary. They also invent stories and relate them to their priest for the pur-
pose of frustrating a marriage engagement, that some other party may obtain
the bride. These and many hundred similar tricks have actually been played
by them, and show conclusively that they are well capable of reasoning when
their self-interest or their needs demand it.

The Californians are audacious and at the same time faint-hearted and timid
inahigh degree. They climb to the top of the weak, trembling stems, sometimes
thirty-six feet high, which are called cardones by the Spaniards, to look out for
game, or mount an untamed horse, without bridle and saddle, and ride, during
the night, upon roads which I was afraid to travel in the daytime. When new
buildings are erected, they walk on the miserable, ill-constructed_scaffoldings
with the agility of cats, or venture several leagues into the open sea on a bundle
of brushwood, or the thin stem of a palm-tree, without thinking of any danger.
But the report of a gun makes them forget their bows and arrows, and half a
dozen soldiers are capable of checking several hundred Californians.

Gratitude towards benefactors, respect for superiors, parents, and other rela-
tions, and politeness in intercourse with fellow-men, are almost unknown to
them.* They speak plainly, and pay compliments to no one. If one of them
has received a present, he immediately turns his back upon the donor and
walks off without saying a word, unless the Spanish phrase, Dus te lo pague,
or, “God reward you,” has been previously, by a laborious process, enforced
upon his memory.

Where there is no honor, shame is ever wanting, and therefore I always
wondered how the word “ié,”’ that is, “to be ashamed,” had been introduced.

eWO bb to ene) Fy Ba ee el te a te

* According to Baegert’s own statement, (p. 309,) the forced departure of the Jesuit mis-
sionaries from the peninsula caused great distress among the Indians, who expressed their
grief by a general howling and weeping, which shows that the feelings of gratitude and
attachment were not entirely wanting in their character, although selfishness may havo had
a large share in the demonstration. The parting scene is well described in a few lines by
W. lrving.—Ado. of Captain Bonneville, p. 33%.

3880 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

into their language; for, among themselves, no one would blush on account of
any misdeed he had perpetrated. If one had killed his father and mother,
robbed churches, or committed other infamous crimes, and had been a hundred
times whipped and pilloried, he would, nevertheless, strut about with a serene
brow and an erect head, and without being in the least degraded in the eyes of
his people.

Laziness, lying, and stealing are their hereditary vices and principal moral
defects. ‘They are not a people upon whose word any reliance can be placed,
but they will answer in one breath six times “yes” and as many times “no,”
without feeling ashamed, or even perceiving that they contradict themselves.
They are averse to any labor not absolutely necessary to supply them with the
means of satisfying hunger. If any work occurred in the mission, it was
necessary to drive and urge them constantly to their task, and a great number
complained of sickness during the week-days, for which reason I always called -
the Sunday a day of miracles, because all those who had been sick the whole .
week felt wonderfully well on that day. If they were only a little more indus-
trious, they might improve their condition, to a certain extent, by planting
some maize, pumpkins, and cotton, or by keeping small flocks of goats, sheep,
or even a few cattle; and, having now learned to prepare the skins of deer,
they could casilyssupply themselves with garments. But nothing of this kind
is to be expected of them. They do not care to eat pigeons, unless they fly
roasted into their mouths.* ‘T’o work to-day and to earn the fruit of their
labor only three or six months afterwards seems to be incompatible with their
character, and for this reason there is little hope that they will ever adopt a
different mode of life.

Books could be filled with accounts of their thefts. They will not touch
gold or silver; but anything that can be chewed, be it raw or cooked, above
the ground or below, ripe or unripe, is not more safe from them than the mouse
from the cat, if the eye of the owner be only diverted for a moment. The
herdsman will not even spare the dog that has been given to him to watch the
flock of sheep or goats intrusted to his care. While one day observing, un-
seen, my cook, who was engaged in boiling meat, I noticed that he took one
piece after another out of the kettle, bit off a part, and threw it again into the
vessel. The meal on the missionary’s table, when he is suddenly called away,
is not safe from their thievery, and even the holy wafers in the sacristy are in
danger of being taken. by them. Yet they sometimes lay their hands on things
of which they can make no use whatever, in a way really surprising, which
shows to what degree stealing has become a habit with them.

For eight years I kept, ranging at large, from four to five hundred: head of
cattle, and sometimes as many goats and sheep, until the constant robberies of
the Indians of my own and the neighboring mission compelled me to give up
ceattle-breeding.t In the bodies of nineteen cows and oxen, that had been
killed in one day in the mission, there were found, after the removal of the skin,
more than eight flint-points of arrows, the shafts of which had been broken off
by the wounded animals while passing through the rocks and bushes. I
believe that more of these animals were killed and eaten by the natives than
were brought to the mission for consumption, and horses and asses suffered in
like manner.

* German proverb.

t The cattle, as well as the goats and sheep, are described as small and lean, owing to the
scanty pasturage. The horses, though small, were of a good breed and enduring, but they
did not sufficiently multiply, and fresh animals had to be imported every year to mount the
soldiers and cowherds. ‘‘ The ass alone,’ says the author, ‘‘ which is nowhere choice, but
always contented, fares tolerably well in California. He works but little, and feeds on the
prickly shrubs with as much relish as if they were the most savory oats.” The number of
hogs on the whole peninsula hardly amounted to a dozen.

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. 381

In order to be exempt from labor, or to escape the punishment for gross
misdeeds, the Californians sometimes counterfeit dangerously sick or dying
persons. Many of those who were carried to the mission in such a feigned state
by their comrades received a sound flogging, which suddenly restored them to
health. Without mentioning all the cases that fell under my notice, I will
speak of two individuals who represented dying persons so well that I did not
hesitate to give them extreme unction. Another really frightened me by pre-
tending to be infected with the smallpox, which actually raged in the neighboring
mission, causing its priest for three months, day and night, a vast deal of trouble
and care, and keeping him almost constantly on horseback. A fourth, whose
name was Clement, seemed also resolved to give up the ghost. With him,
however, the difficulty was that he had never seen a dying person, not even his
wife, whom I had buried, and often visited during her sickness, without ever
finding the husband at home. But having witnessed the death of many cows
and oxen, which his arrows had brought down, he imitated the dying beast so
naturally, by lolling out his tongue and licking his lips, that he went afterwards
always by the name of Clemente vacca or Cow Clement.

Nothing excites the admiration of the Californians. They look upon the
most splendid ecclesiastic garments, embroidered with gold and silver, with as
much indifference as though the material consisted of wool and the galoons of
common flax. They would rather see a piece of meat than the rarest manu-
factures of Milan and Lyons, and resemble, in that respect, a certain Canadian
who had been in France, and remarked, after his return to Canada, that nothing
in Paris had pleased him better than the butcher-shops.*

They are not in the least degree susceptible of disgust, but will touch and
handle the uncleanest objects as though they were roses, killing spiders with
their fists, and taking hold of toads without aversion. ‘hey use as a covering
the filthiest rag, and wear it until it rots on their bodies. In person they are
exceedingly dirty, and waste hardly any time in decorating and embellishing
themselves. I must mention here, also, that they are in the habit of washing
themselves with urine, which renders their persons very disagreeable, as I have
often experienced when I had to confess them. I was informed by reliable
people that they eat a certain kind of large spiders, and likewise the vermin
which they take from each other’s heads; but I never saw them doing it:
whereas I saw them frequently fetch their maize porridge at noon in a half-
eleaned turtle-shell which they had used the whole morning to carry the dung
from the folds of the sheep and goats.

Concerning their improvement by the introduction of the Christian religion,
I am unable to bestow much praise upon those among whom I lived seventeen
years, during which period I had sufficient opportunity to become thoroughly
acquainted with their character; but I must confess, to my greatest affliction,
that the seed of the Divine Word has borne but little fruit among them; for
this seed fell into hearts already obdurated in vice from their very infancy by
seduction and bad example, which all pains and exertions on the part of the
missionary were unavailing to remove. The occasions for evil-doing, among
young and old, are of daily occurrence, and numberless. The parents them-
selves give the worst example, and the Spanish soldiers, cowherds, and a few
others who come to the country for the purpose of pearl-fishing and mining,
contribute not a little to increase vice among the native population. ‘The mo-

INQ AE SIAL LR ALE SE EN Ne REG RT

* Mr. Catlin relates a similar circumstance of a party of Iowa Indians that were exhibited
in London. After their first drive through the city, ‘‘they returned to their lodgings in
great glee, and amused us at least for an hour with their first impressions of London, the
leading, striking feature of which, and the one that seemed to afford them the greatest satis-
faction, was the quantity of fresh meat that they saw in every street hanging up at the doors
and windows.”—Catlin’s Notes of Eight Years’ Travels and Residence in Europe. New
York, 1848: vol. ii, p. 9.

382 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

tives, on the other hand, which act elsewhere as checks upon the conduct of
the people, and keep them within the bounds of decency, are not at all under-
stood or appreciated by the Californians, for which reason the teachings of
religion can make but little impression upon their unprepared minds; and bein
thus unrestrained by any considerations, they easily yield to the impulses o
their character, in which a strong passion for illegal sexual intercourse forms a
prominent feature. In all bad habits and vices the Californian women fully
equal the men, but surpass them in impudence and want of devotion, contrary
to the habit of the female sex in all the rest of the world. There were certainly
some among the Californians who led edifying lives and behaved in a praise-
worthy manner after having embraced the Christian faith; but their number
was very small; the reverse, on the contrary, being the general rule to such a
degree that the wicked and vicious formed the great majority of the natives.

CHAPTER VI.—THEIR CHARACTER, CONTINUED.—AN ACCOUNT OF THE ASSASSI-
NATION OF THE JESUIT FATHERS TAMARAL AND CARRANCO.*

To all other bad qualities of the Californians may be added their vindictive- .
ness and cruelty. ‘They care very little for the life of man, and an insignificant
cause will stimulate them to commit a murder. Among other cases which
happened while I lived in their country, I will mention that of the master of a
small ship loaded with provisions for two poor missions. ‘This man had scolded
a number of natives for some cause or other, which they resented by breaking
his skull with a heavy stone, while he was eating his supper on the shore. His
ship they abandoned to wind and waves. In the year 1760, a boy of about
sixteen years stabbed another of the same age with a knife in the abdomen, and
struck him on the head with a heavy club, almost within sight of the whole
tribe, and only a stone’s throw from the church and the house of the missionary.
The murderer had already selected a horse on which to escape, and intended to
save himself within a church thirty leagues distant from the place where the
crime was committed; but he failed to effect his flight. t

Up to the year 1750 the Californians had revolted at different times and
places, and compelled several missionaries to abandon their stations, and to seek
safety in other quarters. The natives were stirred up to these insurrections
either by their conjurers or sorcerers, whose influence had been considerably
reduced, or because it was requested of them to keep those promises which they
had made when receiving the holy baptism.

The most extensive and dangerous revolt of all began in the year 1733, in the
southern part of the peninsula, among two tribes called the Pericwes and Coras,
who are to this day of a very fierce, unruly, and untractable character, and who
gave much trouble to Father Ignatius Tirs, from Kommotau, in Bohemia, the
last Jesuit missionary who resided in their district.{

In the year 1733 there existed in that part of the country, which was inhab-

‘ited by several thousand natives, four missions, with three priests, who had in
all only six soldiers for their protection. The missions were the following:
La Paz, without a resident priest, and guarded by one soldier; St. Rosa, under
Father Sigismund Taraval, a Spaniard, born in Italy, protected by three sol-
diers; S¢. Yago, over which Father Lorenzo Carranco, a Mexican, of Spanish

* This episode in the missionary history of California forms a separate chapter in the third
part of our author’s work; but as it throws much light on the temperament of the natives, I
have inserted it in this place, y

t This church was probably considered as an asylum or place of safety,

¢ He was one of those who shared with the author, in 1767, the fate of banishment. At
that time there were in all sixteen Jesuits in Lower California—fifteen priests and one lay
brother. Six of them were Spaniards, two Mexicans, and eight Germans. The names of
the latter are given on page 312 by the author, who omits, however, his own name in order
to preserve his anonymous character.

| THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. 399
i

parentage, resided, with two soldiers; and Sz. Joseph del Cabo, under Father

Nicolas Tamaral, from Sevilla, in Spain, without any guard.

The motives leading to this insurrection, which were afterwards freely divulged
by the natives, consisted in their unwillingness to content themselves with one
wife, although they had promised to renounce polygamy, and their displeasure
at being reprimanded for certain transgressions deserving the censure of their
spiritual advisers. The ringleaders and principal movers of the rebellion were
two individuals, Botén and Chicéri by name, who exerted a great influence
among the natives, and prepared everything in secret for the outbreak. Their
object was to kill the three priests, to exterminate all traces of Christianity,
which most of them had adopted ten years before, and to resume their former
loose and independent manner of living. Their design became, however, known,
and the fire was’ extinguished before it could blaze up in full flames. The In-
dians feigned a friendly disposition, and a kind of peace was established towards
the beginning of the year 1734. But as this peace was not concluded with
sincerity, it could not be of a long duration. The treacherous rebels soon again
made attempts to carry out at all hazards the objects they had in view, and
really succeeded in the following October, though not so completely as they
wished, since Father 'Taraval found the means to escape their murderous hands.

The six soldiers were their principal obstacle. Meeting in the field with one
of them of the mission of St. Rosa, they assassinated him, and sent word to the
mission that he was very ill, requesting the priest either to come to the place in
order to confess him, or to order the two remaining soldiers to transport the
patient to the station, their inténtion being to decoy the one or the others, and
to take their lives. But fortunately the messenger delivered his commission in
such an awkward manner that the crime they had already perpetrated, as well
a3 their further designs, could be easily divined, for which reason neither the
priest nor the soldiers complied with their request. A few days afterward they
killed also the only soldier belonging to the mission de la Paz.

The rumor of these two murders, and other indubitable signs of an impending
mutiny and general uprising in the south, were spread abroad, and soon reached
the ears of the Superior of the missions, who was then at that of the Seven
Dolors, nearly ninety leagues from the place where these events had occurred.
He sent orders immediately to the three priests whose lives were endangered to
save themselves by flight, but the letters fell into the hands of the mutineers,
and would, besides, at any rate have arrived too late to avert the peril.

It was the intention of the conspirators to strike the first blow against the
mission of St. Joseph and Father Tamaral; but learning that Father Carranco
had already received intelligence of their plans, they rushed with all speed
upon his mission before he could make any preparations for defence, or effect
his escape from the place. It was on a Saturday, and the 2d of October, when
they arrived at the mission of St. Yago. The father had just said mass, and
had locked himself in his room to perform his private devotions. Most unfor-
tunately the two soldiers, who formed his whole body-guard, had left the place
on horseback in order to bring in some head of cattle for the catechumens and
other people of the mission. After a while the returned messengers, whom
Father Carranco had despatched to the mission of St. Joseph to warn lather
Tamaral of the danger to which he was exposed, entered the room. Father
Carranco was reading his answer, when the murderers entered the house and
fell upon him. Some threw him on the ground and dragged him by his feet to
the front of the church, while others pierced his body with many arrows, and
beat him with stones and clubs till he expired.

A little native boy, who used to wait upon the father when he took his meals,
was a witness to the act, and shed tears when he beheld his benefactor’s
mournful fate; upon which one of the barbarians seized the boy by the legs
and smashed his head against the wall, saying, that since he showed so much

al

384 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF
regret at the death of his master, he should also serve him and bear him com-
pany in the other world. Among the murderers were some whom the father
had considered as the most reliable of his flock, and whose fidelity he never had
doubted.

Having torn the garments from the lifeless body, they treated it in a most
abominable manner in order to wreak their vengeance, and they finally threw
it on a burning pile. After this they set the church and the house on fire, and
burned to ashes the utensils of the church, the altar, the representations of our
Saviour and of the Saints, and everything else that they could not apply to
their own use. In the mean time the two unarmed soldiers, who had been sent
after cattle, returned. They were compelled to dismount and to kill the cows
for the malefactors, after which the savages despatched them with a shower of
arrows.

On the following day, the same fate befell Father Tamaral, the priest of the
mission of St. Joseph, twelve leagues distant from that of St. Yago, for as soon as
the villains had committed their crime at the one place, they directed their
march to the other. Father Tamaral, not believing the report of his colleague,
was quietly sitting in his house, when the savage crowd, considerably increased
by members of his own parish, made their appearance in the mission. In their
usual manner, they demanded something from the missionary, for the purpose
of finding a pretext for quarrelling and commencing their hostilities, in case the
priest should disappoint them in their wishes. But their behavior, and the
arms which they all carried with them, soon convinced the missionary that they
had other designs, and he consequently not only complied with their requests,
but gave them even more than they demanded. Being thus bafiled in their
attempt, and full of eagerness to carry out their bloody plan, they put aside all
dissimulation and attacked the missionary without further delay. They threw
him on the ground, dragged him into the open air, and discharged their arrows
upon him. One of their number, whom the father had a short time before pre-
sented with a large knife, added ingratitude to cruelty by burying the weapon
in his body.

Thus the Fathers Tamaral and Carranco were led to the shambles by their
own flock, and closed their days in California, after they had spent many years
in that country, and, by a blameless life and great zeal, proved themselves
worthy to die the death of martyrs. The abuses to which the savages sub-
jected the body of the deceased priest were greater, in this instance, and they
exhibited more wantonness in the destruction of the church and other property
than on the preceding day, because the crowd was larger and had become more
infuriated by previous success.

Father 'Taraval, of St. Rosa, the third priest of whom they intended to make
a victim, succeeded in making good his flight. He sojourned for the moment
on the western coast of California, at the station of All Saints, which formed an
adjunct to his own mission, and was a two days’ journey distant from St. Joseph.
Being warned in due time by some faithful Indians of the danger that threat-
ened him, he packed up in great haste his most needful things and rode at full
speed, in company with his two soldiers, during the night of the fourth of Octo-
ber towards the opposite shore of the peninsula, where he embarked near the
mission of La Paz in a small vessel, which had been despatched to that place
when the first news of the impending rebellion became known. He landed in
safety at the mission of the Seven Dolors, then situated near the sea; leaving
behind him the smoking ruins of four missions that had been totally destroyed
in less than four days, but which could only be rebuilt and raised to their former
importance with great sacrifices of time, labor, and human life.

The rebels, however, fared badly, and had no eause to glory in their triumph.
The southern tribes, whose number was four thousand souls at the outbreak of
the revolt, are now reduced to four hundred, for not only was war waged against

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. ‘88 5

them by the Californian and foreign militia, but they had also quarrels among
themselves.* Yet these causes were less effective in their destruction than the
loathsome diseases and ulcers by which they were visited, and amone the four
hundred that now remain, only a few are free from the general malady and
enjoy the blessing of sound health.

On the other hand, be that grace of Heaven a thousand times praised, which,
in our day also, inspires among the members of the Catholic priesthood, and
especially in the Society of Jesus, men of superior courage who, without the
slightest self-interest and for the sole purpose of propagating the Christian faith,
not only brave all dangers to which they are exposed in wild countries and
amidst barbarous tribes, but who also willingly give up their lives when occa-
sion demands such sacrifices! For besides these two Californian missionaries,
‘many others belonging to the same society have suffered death in the course
of this century, while engaged in the conversion of heathen nations. Among
the great number of these victims, I will only mention Father Thomas Tello,
a Spaniard, and Father Henry Ruhen, a German from Westphalia, both Jesuits,
who were killed as late as 1751, by the mutinous Pimas, on the other side of
the Californian gulf. With Father Ruhen, I had crossed the Atlantic ocean a
year before, and we made also in company the journey overland as far as the
Pimeria, where he closed his days six months after his arriyal.

CHAPTER VII.—THEIR TREATMENT OF THE SICK.—FUNERAL CUSTOMS.

With all their poor diet and hardships, the Californians are seldom sick.
They are in general strong, hardy, and much healthier than the many’thousands
who live daily in abundance and on the choicest fare that the skill of Parisian
cooks can prepare. It is very probable that most Californians would attain a
considerable age, after having safely passed through the dangers of their child-
hood; but they are immoderate in eating, running, bathing, and other matters,
and thus doubtless shorten their existence. Excepting consumption and that
disease which was brought from America to Spain and Naples, and from thence
spread over various countries, they are but little subject to the disorders com-
mon in Kurope; podagra, apoplexy, dropsy, cold and petechial fevers being
, almost unknown among them. There is no word in their language to express
sickness in general or any particular disease. ‘To be sick,” they signify by
the phrase atemba-tze, which means “to lie down on the ground,” though all
those in good health may be seen in that position the whole day, if they are
not searching for food or otherwise engaged. When I asked a Californian what
ailed him, he usually said, “I have a pain in my chest,” without giving further
particulars.

For the small-pox the Californians are, like other Americans, indebted to
Europeans, and this disease assumes a most pestilential character among them.
A piece of cloth which a Spaniard, just recovered from the small-pox, had given
to a Californian communicated, in the year 1763, the disease to a small mission,
and in three months more than a hundred individuals died, not to speak of many
others who had been infected, but were saved by the unwearied pains and care
of the missionary. Not one of them would have escaped the malady, had not
the majority run away from the neighborhood of the hospital as soon as they
discovered the contagious nature of the disease.

In the month of April of the same year, 1763, a young and strong woman
of my mission was seized with a very peculiar disorder, consisting in eructa-

* This is the only instance in which the author alludes to wars among the natives in the
body of his book, though the first appendix contains, on page 328, the following remark in
refutation of a passage in the French translation of Venegas’s work: ‘‘ All that is said in
reference to the warfare of the Californians is wrong. In their former wars they merely
attacked the enemy unexpectedly during the night, or from an ambush, and killed as many
as they could, without order, previous declaration of war, or any ceremonies whatever.”

25 §

'

886 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

tions of such violent character that the noise almost resembled thunder, and
could be heard at a distance of forty and more paces. The eructations lasted.
about half a minute, and followed each other after an interval of a few minutes.
The appetite of the patient was good, and she complained of nothing else. In this
condition she remained for a week, when she suddenly dropped down in such a
manner that I thought she would never rise again; but I was mistaken, for the
. eructations and the peculiar fits continued for three years, until she became at
last emaciated and cited in the month of July, 1766. A few days after the
outbreak of her malady, her husband was attacked by the same disorder, and
on my departure, in 1768, I left him without hope of recovery. Subsequently
the woman’s brother and his wife suffered in like manner, and after these
_ several other Californians, principally of the female sex. Neither the oldest of
the natives, nor missionaries living for thirty years in the country, had hitherto
been acquainted with this extraordinary and apparently contagious disease.

The patience of Californians in sickness is really admirable. Hardly a sigh
is heaved by those who lie on the bare ground in the most pitiable. condition
and racked with pain. They look without dread upon their ulcers and wounds,
and submit to burning and cutting, or make incisions in their own flesh for ex-
tracting thorns and splinters, with as much indifference as though the operation
were performed on somebody else. It is, however, an indication of approach-
ing death when they lose their appetite. :

Their medical art is very limited, consisting almost exclusively, whatever
the character of the disease may be, in the practice of binding, when feasible,
a cord or coarse rope tightly around the affected part of the body. Sometimes
they make use of a kind of bleeding by cutting with a sharp stone a few small
openings in the inflamed part, in order to draw blood and thus relieve the
patient. Though every year a number of Californians die by the bite of the
rattlesnake, their only remedy against such accidents consists in tightly bind-
ing the injured member a little above the wound towards the heart; but if the
part wounded by the reptile is a finger or a hand, they simply cut it off, and I
knew several who had performed this cure on themselves or on individuals of their
families. Now-a-days they beg in nearly all cases of disease for tallow to rub
the affected part, and also for Spanish snuff which they use against headache
and sore eyes. Excepting the remedies just mentioned, they have no appli-
ances whatever against ulcers, wounds, or other external injuries, and far less
against internal disorders; and though they may repeatedly have seen the
missionary using some sitmple for removing a complaint, they will, either from
forgetfulness or indolence, never employ it for themselves or others, but always
apply to the missionary again.

They do not, however, content themselves with these natural remedies, but
have also recourse to supernatural means, which certainly never brought about
a recovery. There are many impostors among them, pretending to possess the
power of curing diseases, and the ignorant Indians have so much faith in their
art that they send for one er more of these scoundrels whenever they are indis-
posed. In treating a sick person, these jugglers employ a small tube, which
they use for sucking or blowing the patient for a while, making, also, various
grimaces and muttering something which they do not understand themselves,
until, finally, after much hard breathing and panting, they show the patient a
flint, or some other object previously hidden about their persons, pretentling to
have at last removed the real cause of the disorder. ‘Twelve of these. liars
received one day, by my orders, the punishment they deserved, and the whole
people had to promise to desist in future from these practices, or else I would
no more preach for them. But when, a few weeks afterwards, that individual,
who first of all had engaged to renounce the devil, fell sick, he sent imme-
diately again for the blower to perform the usual jugglery.

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. 387

It is to be feared that some of those who are seized with illness far from the
mission, and not carried thither, are buried alive, especially old people, .and
such as have few relations, for they are in the habit of digging the grave two
- or three days before the patient breathes his last. It seems tedious to them to
spend much time near an old, dying person that was long ago a burden to them
and looked upon with indifference. A person of my acquaintance restored a
girl to life that was already bound up in a deer-skin, according to their custom,
and ready for burial, by administering to her a good dose of chocolate. She lived
many years afterwards. On their way to the mission, some natives broke the
neck of a blind, sick old woman, in order to be spared the trouble of carrying
-her a-few miles further. Another patient, being much annoyed by gnats, which
no one felt inclined to keep off from him, was covered up in such a manner
that he died of suffocation. In transporting a patient from one place to
another, they bind him on a rude litter, made of crooked pieces of wood, which
would constitute a perfect rack for any but Indian bones, the carriers being in
the habit of running with their charge.

Concerning their consciences and eternity, the Californians are perfectly
quiet during their sickness, and die off as calmly as though they were sure of
heaven. As soon as a person has given up the ghost, a terrible howling is
raised by the women that are present, and by those to whom the news is com-
municated, yet no one sheds tears, excepting, perhaps, the nearest relations,.
and the whole proceeding is a mere ceremony. But who would believe that
some of them show a dislike to be buried according to the rites of the Catholie:
religion? Having noticed that certain individuals, who were dangerously sick,
yet still in possession of their faculties, objected to being led or carried to the:
mission, in order to obtain there both spiritual and material assistance, I in-
quired the cause of this strange behavior, and was informed they considered it
as a derision of the dead to bury them with ringing of the bells, chanting, and.
other ceremonies of the Catholic church.

One of them told me they had formerly broken the spine of the deceased.
before burying them, and had thrown them into the ditch, rolled up like a ball,

' believing that they would rise up again if not treated in this manner. I saw
them, however, frequently putting shoes on the feet of the dead, which rather
seems to indicate that they entertain the idea of a journey after death; but
whenever I asked them why they observed this probably very ancient custom,
they could not give me any satisfactory answer. In time of mourning, both
men and women cut off their hair almost entirely, which formerly was giveit.
to their physicians or conjurers, who made them into a kind of mantle or large
wig, to be worn on solemn occasions.

When a death has taken place, those who want to show the relations of the
deceased their respect for the latter lie in wait for these people, and if they
pass they come out from their hiding-place, almost creeping, and intonate a
mournful, plaintive, hu, hu, hu / wounding their heads with pointed, sharp.
stones, until the blood flows down to their shoulders. Although this barbarous.
custom has frequently been interdicted, they are unwilling to discontinue it..
When I learned, a few years ago, that some had been guilty of this trans-
gression after the death of a certain woman, I left them the choice either to
submit to the fixed punishment or to repeat this mourning ceremony in my
presence. They chose the latter, and, in a short time, I saw the blood trick-
ling down from their lacerated heads.

CHAPTER VIJI.—THEIR QUALIFICATIONS AND MANNERS.

From what I have already said of the Californians, it might be inferred. that
they are the most unhappy and pitiable of all the children of Adam. Yet
such a supposition would be utterly wrong, and I can assure the reader that,
as far as their temporal condition is concerned, they live unquestionably much

3888 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

happier than the civilized inhabitants of Europe, not excepting those who seem
to enjoy all the felicity that life can afford. Habit renders all things endurable
and easy, and the Californian sleeps on the hard ground and in the open air
just as well and soft as the rich European on the curtained bed of down in his
‘splendidly decorated apartment. Throughout the whole year nothing happens .
that causes a Californian trouble or vexation, nothing that renders his life cum-
bersome and death desirable; for no one harasses and persecutes him, or ear-
ries on a lawsuit against him; neither a hail-storm nor an army can lay waste
his fields, and he is not in danger of having his house and barn destroyed by
fire. Envy, jealousy, and slander embitter not his life, and he is not exposed
to the fear of losing what he possesses, nor to the care of increasing it. No
creditor lays claim to debts; no officer extorts duty, toll, poll-tax, and a hun-
dred other tributes. There is no woman that spends more for dress than the
income of the husband allows; no husband who gambles or drinks away the
money that should serve to support and clothe the family ; there are no children
to be established in life; no daughters to be provided with husbands; and no
prodigal sons that heap disgrace upon whole families.. In one word, the Cali-
fornians do not know the meaning of meum and tuum, those two ideas which,
according to St. Gregory, fill the few days of our existence with bitterness and
uncountable evils.

Though the Californians seem to possess nothing, they have, nevertheless,
all that they want, for they covet nothing beyond the productions of their
poor, ill-favored country, and these are always within their reach. It is no
wonder, then, that they always exhibit a joyful temper, and constantly indulge
in merriment and laughter, showing thus their contentment, which, after all, is
the real source of happiness.

The Californians know very little of arithmetic, some of them being unable
to count further than szz, while others cannot number beyond ‘free, insomuch
that none of them can say how many fingers he has. They do not possess
anything that is worth counting, and hence their indifference. It is all the
same to thera whether the year has six or twelve months, and the month three
or thirty days, for every day is a holiday with them. They care not whether
they have one or two or twelve children, or none at all, since twelve cause
them no more expense or trouble than one, and the inheritance is not lessened
by a plurality of heirs. Any number beyond six they express in their lan-

uage by much, leaving it to their confessor to make out whether that number
amounts to seven, seventy, or seven hundred. .

They do not know what a year is, and, consequently, cannot say when it
begins and ends. Instead of saying, therefore, “a year ago,”’ or ‘during this
year,” the Californians who speak the Waicuri language use the expressions,
at is already an ambia past, or, during this ambia, the latter word signifying
the pitahaya fruit, of which a description has been given on a previous page.
A space of three years, therefore, is expressed by the term “three pitahayas ;”
yet they seldom make use of such phrases, because they hardly ever speak
among themselves of years, but merely say, “long ago,” or, “not long ago,”
being utterly indifferent whether two or twenty years have elapsed since the
occurrence of a certain event. For the same reason they do not speak of
months, and have not even a name for that space of time. A week, however,
they call at present ambija, that is, “a house,” or “ a place where one resides,”
which name they have now, per antonomasiam, bestowed upon the church
They are divided into bands, which alternately spend a week at the mission,
where they have to attend church-service, and thus the week has become
among them synonymous with the church.

When the Californians visit the missionary for any purpose, they are per-
fectly silent at first, and when asked the cause of their visit, their first answer
is vara, which means “nothing.” Having afterwards delivered their speech,

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. 389

they sit down, unasked; in doing which the women stretch out their lees, while
the men cross them in the oriental fashion. The same habits they observe
also in the church and elsewhere. They salute nobody, such a civility being
unknown to them, and they have no word to express greeting. If something
is communicated to them which they do not like, they spit out sideways and
scratch the ground with their left foot to express their displeasure.

The men carry everything on their heads; the women bear loads on their
backs suspended by ropes that pass around their foreheads, and in order to
protect the skin from injury, they place between the forehead and the rope a
piece of untanned deer-hide, which reaches considerably above the head, and
resembles, from afar, a helmet, or the high head-dress worn by ladies at the
present time.

The Californians have a great predilection for singing and dancing, which
are always performed together; the first is called ambéra dite, the latter agénari.
Their singing is nothing but an inarticulate, unmeaning whispering, murmur-
ing, or shouting, which every one intonates according to his own inclination, in
order to express his joy. ‘Their dances consist in a foolish, irregular gesticu-
lating and jumping, or advancing, retreating, and walking inacircle. Yet, they
take such delight in these amusements that they spend whole nights in their
performance, in which respect they much resemble Europeans, of whom cer-
tainly more have killed themselves during Shrovetide and at other times by
dancing, than by praying and fasting. ‘These pastimes, though innocent in
themselves, had to be rigidly interdicted, because the grossest disorders and
vices were openly perpetrated by the natives during the performances; but it
is hardly possible to prevent them from indulging in their sports. While
speaking of these exercises of the natives, I will also mention that they are
exceedingly good runners. I would gladly have yielded up to them my three
horses for consumption if I had been as swift-footed as they ; for, whenever I
travelled, I became sooner tired with riding than they with walking. They
will run twenty leagues to-day, and return to-morrow to the place from whence
they started without showing much fatigue. Being one day on the point of
setting out on a journey, a little boy expressed a wish to accompany me, and
when I gave him to understand that the distance was long, the business press-
ing, and my horse, moreover, very brisk, he replied with great promptness :
“Thy horse will become tired, but I will not.” Another time I sent a boy of
fourteen years with a letter to the neighboring mission, situated six leagues
from my residence. He started at seven o’¢lock in the morning, and when
about a league and a half distant from his place of destination, he met the mis-
sionary, to whom the letter was addressed, mounted on a good mule, and on his
way to pay meavisit. The boy turned round and accompanied the missionary,
with whom he arrived about noon at my mission, having walked within five
hours a distance of more than nine leagues.

With boys and girls who have arrived at the age of puberty, with pregnant
women, new-born children, and women in child-bed, the Californians observed,
and still secretly observe, certain absurd ceremonies of an unbecoming nature,
which, for this reason, cannot be described in this book.

There existed always among the Californians individuals of both sexes who
played the part of sorcerers or conjurers, pretending to possess the power of
exorcising the devil, whom they never gaw; of curing diseases, which they
never healed; and of producing pitahayas, though they could only eat them,
Sometimes they went into caverns, and, changing their voices, made the people
believe that they conversed with some spiritual power. ‘They threatened also
"with famine and diseases, or promised to drive the small-pox and similar plagues
away and to other places. When these braggarts appeared formerly in their
gala apparel, they wore long mantles made of human hair, of which the mis-
sionaries burned a great number in all newly established missions. ‘The object

390 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

of these impostors was to obtain their food without the trouble of gathering it
in the fields, for the silly people provided them with the best they could find,
in order to keep them in good humor and to enjoy their favor. Their influence
is very small now-a-days; yet the sick do not cease to place their confidence in
them, as I mentioned in the preceding chapter.

It might be the proper time now to speak of the form of government and
the religion of the Californians previous to their conversion to Christianity;
but neither the one nor the other existed among them. They had rio magis-
trates, no police, and no laws; idols, temples, religious worship or ceremonies
were unknown to them, and they neither believed in the true and only God,
nor adored false deities.* ‘hey were all equals, and every one did as he
pleased, without asking his neighbor or caring for his opinion, and thus all vices
and misdeeds remained unpunished, excepting such cases in which the offended
individual or his relations took the law into their own hands and revenged
themselves on the guilty party. The different tribes represented by no means

‘communities of rational beings, who submit to laws and regulations and obey
their superiors, but resembled far more herds of wild swine, which run about
according to their own liking, being together to-day and scattered to-morrow,
till they meet again by accident at some future time. In one word, the Cali-
fornians lived, salva venia, as though they had been freethinkers and materi-
alists. t

I made diligent inquiries, among those with whom I lived, to ascertain
whether they had any conception of God, a future life, and their own souls, but
I never could discover the slightest trace of such a knowledge. Their language
has no words for “God” and “soul,” for which reason the missionaries were
compelled to use in their sermons and religious instructions the Spanish words
Dios and alma. It could hardly be otherwise with people who thought of .
nothing but eating and merry-making and never reflected on serious matters,
but dismissed everything that lay beyond the narrow compass of their concep-
tions with the phrase aipekériri, which means ‘‘who knows that?” I often
asked them whether they had never put to themselves the question who might
be the creator and preserver of the sun, moon, stars, and other objects of nature,
but was, always seut home with a vdra, which means “no” in their language.

CHAPTER IX.—HOW THEY LIVED BEFORE AND AFTER THEIR CONVERSION.

I will now proceed to describe in a few words in what manner the unbap-
tized Californians spent their days.

In the evening, when they had eaten their fill, they either lay down, or sat
together and chatted till they were tired of talking, or had communicated to
each other all that they knew for the moment. In the morning they slept until
hunger forced them to rise. As soon as they awakened, the eating recom-
menced, if anything remained; and the laughing, talking, and joking were
likewise resumed. After this morning-prayer, when the sun was already some-
what high, the men seized their bows and arrows, and. the women hitched on
their yokes and turtle-shells. Some went to the right, others to the left; here
six, there four, eight, or three, and sometimes one alone, the different bands,
always continuing the laughing and chattering on their way. ‘They looked
around to espy a mouse, lizard, snake, or perhaps a hare or deer; or tore up
here and there a yuka or other root, or cut off some alots. A part of the day

* According to Father Piccolo, the Californians worshipped the moon; and Venegas
mentions the belief in a good and bad principle as prevailing among the Pericues and
Cotchimies.—( Weitz, Anthropolegie der Naturvélker, vol. iv, p. 250.) These statements
are emphatically refuted by Baegert in his first appendix, p. 315, where he says: ‘‘ It is not
true that they worshipped the moon, or practiced any kind of idolatry.”

t This is literally his expression.

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. 391

thus spent, a pause was made. They sat or lay down in the shade, if they
happened to find any, without, however, allowing their tongues to come to a
stand-still, or they played or wrestled with each other, to find out who was the
strongest among them and could throw his adversaries to the ground, in which
sport the women likewise participated. Now they either returned to the camp-
ing-place of the preceding night, or went a few leagues further, until they came
to some spot supplied with water, where they commenced singeing, burning,
roasting, and pounding the captures they had made during the day. They ate
as long as they had anything before them and as there was room in their sto-
machs, and after a long, childish or indecent talk, they betook themselves to
rest.again. In this manner they lived throughout the whole year, and their
conversation, if.it did not turn on eating, had always some childish trick or
knavery for its subject. Those of the natives who cannot be put to some use-
ful labor, while living at the mission, spend their time pretty much in the same
way.

Who would expect, under these circumstances, to find a spark of reli-
gion among the Californians? It is true, they spoke of the course taken by a
deer that had escaped them at nightfall with an arrow in his side, and which
they intended to pursue the next morning, but they never speculated on the
course of the sun and the other heavenly bodies; they talked about their pita-
hayas, even long before they were ripe, yet it never occurred to them to think
of the Creator of the pitahayas and,other productions around them.

I am not unacquainted with the statement of a certain author, according to
which one Californian tribe at least was found to possess some knowledge of
the incarnation of the Son of God and the Holy Trinity; but this is certainly
an error, considering that such a knowledge could only have been imparted by the
preachers of the Gospel. The whole matter doubtless originated in a deception
on the part of the natives, who are very mendacious and inclined to invent
stories calculated to please the missionary; while, on the other hand, every one
may be easily deceived by them who has not yet found out their tricks. It is,

‘moreover, a very difficult task to learn anything from them by inquiry; for,
besides their shameless lies and unnecessarily evasive answers, they entangle,
from inborn awkwardness, the subject in question in such a pitiable manner, and
contradict themselves so frequently, that the inquirer is very apt to lose his
patience. A missionary once requested me to find out whether a certain N.
had been married before his baptism, which he received when a grown man,
with the sister of M. A simple “yes” or “no’’ would have answered the
question and decided the matter at once. But the examination lasted about
three-quarters of an hour, at the end of which I knew just as little as before.
I wrote down the questions and answers, and sent the protocol to the missionary,
who was no more successful than myself in arriving at the final result, whether
N. had been the husband of the sister of M. or not. So confused are the minds
of these Californian Hottentots.

Of baptized Indians, there resided in each mission as many as the missionary
could support and occupy with field-labor, knitting, weaving, and other work.
Where it was possible to keep a good number of sheep, spinning-wheels and
looms were in operation, and the people received more frequently new clothing
than at other stations. In each mission there were also a number of natives
appointed for special service, namely, a sacristan, a goat-herd, a tender of the
sick, a catechist, a superintendent, a fiscal, and two dirty cooks, one for the
missionary and the other for the Californians. Of the fifteen missions, how-
ever, there were only four, and these but thinly populated, which could support
and clothe all their parishioners, and afford them a home during the whole
year. Inthe other missionary stations, the whole people were divided into
three or four bands which appeared alternately once in a month at the mission
and encamped there for a week. ~

392 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

‘Every day at sunrise they all attended mass, during which they said their
beads. Before and after mass they recited the Christian doctrine, drawn up
for them in questions and answers in their own language. An address or ex-
hortation delivered by the missionary in the same language, and lasting from
half an hour to three-quarters of an hour, concluded the religious service of
the morning. This over, breakfast was given to those who were engaged in
some work, while the others went where they pleased in order to gather their
daily bread in the fields, if the missionary was unable to provide them with
food. ‘Towards sunset, a signal with the bell assembled them all again in the
church to say their beads and the litany of Loretto, or to sing it on Sundays
and holidays. The bell was not only rung three times a day, as usual, but
also at three o’clock in the afternoon, in honor of the agony of Christ, and also,
according to Spanish custom, at eight o’clock in the evening, to pray for the
faithful. departed. When the week was over, the parishioners returned to their
respective homes, some three or six, others fifteen or twenty leagues distant
from the mission. :

On the principal holidays of the year, and also during passion-week, all
members of the community were assembled at the mission, and they received
at such times, besides their ordinary food, some head of cattle and a good sup-
ply of Indian corn for consumption; dried figs and raisins were also given them
without stint in all missions where such fruit was raised. On these occasions,
articles of food and apparel were likewise put up as prizes for those who were
winners in the games they played, or excelled in shooting at the target.

Fiscals and superintendents, appointed from among the different bands, pre-
served order within and without the mission. It was their duty to lead all
those who were present to the church when the bell rung, and to collect and
drive in to the mission that portion of the community which had been roaming
for three weeks at large. ‘They were to prevent disorders, public scandals and
knaveries, and to enforce decent behavior and. silence during church-service.
It was further their duty to make the converts recite the catechism morning
and evening, and to say their beads in the fields; to punish slight transgres-
sions, and to report more serious offences at the proper place; to take care of
those who fell sick in the wilderness, and to convey them to the mission, &c.,
&e. Asa badge of their office they carried a cane which was often silver-
headed. Most of them were very proud of their dignity, but only a few per-
formed their duty, for which reason they received their flogging oftener than
the rest, and had to bear the blows and cuffs, which it was their duty to admin-
ister to others.* There were also catechists appointed upon whom it was in-
cumbent to lead the prayers, and to give instruction to the most ignorant of
the catechumens.

, Every day, in the morning, at noon, and in the evening, either the mis-
sionary himself, or some one appointed by him, distributed boiled wheat or
maize to the pregnant women, the blind, old and infirm, if he was unable to
feed them all; and for those who were sick, meat was cooked at least once
every day. When any work was done, all engaged in it were fed three times
aday. Yet their labor was by no means severe. Would to God it had been

* On a preceding page the author gives, not exactly in the proper place, the following
particulars concerning the penal law established among the Californians: ‘‘In cases of
extraordinary crimes, the punishment of the natives was fixed by the royal officer who com-
manded the Californian squadron; common misdeeds fell within the jurisdiction of the
corporal of the soldiers stationed in each mission. Capital punishment, by shooting, was
only resorted to in cases of murder; all other transgressions were either punished by a
number of lashes administered with a leather whip on the bare skin of the culprit, or his
feet putin irons for some days, weeks, or months. As to ecclesiastical punishments, the
Roman pontifis did not think proper to introduce them among the Americans, and fines were
likewise out of the question, in accordance with the old German proverb: ‘ Where there is
nothing, the emperor has no rights.’ ”

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. 393

possible to make them work like the country people and mechanics in Germany !
How many knaveries and vices would have been ayoided every day! The
work always commenced late, and ceased before the sun was down. At noon

_they rested two hours. It is certain that six laborers in Germany do more
work in six days than twelve Californians in twelve days. _ And, moreover, all
their labor was for their own or their countrymen’s benefit; for the missionary
derived nothing but care and trouble from it, and might easily have obtained
elsewhere the few bushels of wheat or Indian corn which he needed for his
own consumption.

For the rest, the missionary was the only refuge of the small and grown,
the sick and the healthy, and he had to bear the burden of all concerns of the
mission. Of him the natives requested food and medicine, clothing and shoes,
tobacco for smoking and snuffing, and tools, if they intended to manufacture
anything. He had to settle their quarrels, to take charge of the infants who
had lost their parents, to provide for the sick, and to appoint watchers by the
dying. I have known missionaries who seldom said their office while the sun
shone, so much were they harassed the whole day. Fathers Ugarte and Druet,
for instance, worked in the fields, exposed to the hot sun, like the poorest
peasants or journeymen, standing in the water and mire up to their knees.
Others carried on the trades of tailors and carpenters, masons, brick-burners
and saddlers; they acted as physicians, surgeons, organists, and schoolmasters,
and had to perform the duties of parents, guardians, wardens of hospitals,
beadles, and many others. The intelligent reader, who has so far become
acquainted with the condition of the country and its inhabitants, can easily
perceive that these exertions on the part of the missionaries were dictated by
necessity, and he will, also, be enabled to imagine in what their rents and reve-
nues, in California not only, but ina hundred other places of America, may
have consisted.

CHAPTER X.—THEIR LANGUAGE.

The account thus far given of the character and the habits of the Califor-
nians will, to a certain extent, enable the reader to form, in advance, an esti-
mate of their language. A people without laws and religion, who think and
speak of nothing but their food and other things which they have in common
with animals, who carry on no trade, and entertain no friendly intercourse with
neighboring tribes, that consist, like themselves, only of a few hundred souls
and always remain within their own small district, where nothing is to be seen
but thorns, rocks, game, and vermin, such a people, I say, cannot be expected
to speak an elegant and rich language. A man of sixty years ran away from
my mission with his son, a boy of about six years, and they spent five years
alone in the Californian wilderness, when they were found and brought back to
the mission. Every one can imagine how and on what subjects these two her-
mits may have conversed in their daily intercourse. The returned lad, who
had then nearly reachéd his twelfth year, was hardly able to speak three words
in succession, and excepting water, wood, fire, snake, mouse, and the like, he
could name nothing, insomuch that he was called the dull and dumb Pablo, or
Paul, by his own countrymen. The story of this boy may almost be applied

*to the whole people.

Leaving aside a great many dialects and offshoots, six entirely different
languages have thus far been discovered in California, namely, the Layména,
about the mission of Loreto; the Cotshimz, in the mission of St. Xavier, and
others towards the north; the Uéshiti and the Pericéa in the south; the still
unknown language spoken by the nations whom Father Linck visited in 1766,
during his exploration of the northern part of the peninsula; and, lastly, the
Waicuri language, of which I am now about to treat, having learned as much
of it as was necessary for conversing with the natives.

394 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

The Waicuri language* is of an exceedingly barbarous and rude description,
by which. rudeness, however, I do not mean a hard pronunciation or a suc-
cession of many consonants, for these qualities do not form the essence of a
language, but merely its outward character or conformation, and are more or’
less imaginary, as it were, among those who are unacquainted with it. It is
well known that Italians and Frenchmen consider the German language as
barbarous, while the Germans have the like opinion of the Bohemian or Polish
languages; but these impressions cease as soon as the Frenchmen or Italians
can converse in German, and the Germans in the Bohemian or Polish tongues.

In the Waicurialphabet theletters 0, f g,/, x, z are wanting, also the s, except-
ing in the tsh; but the great deficiency of the language consists in the total
absence of a great many words, the want of which waquld seem to render it
almost impossible for reasonable beings to converse with each other and to
receive instruction in the Christian religion. For whatever is not substantial,
and cannot be seen or touched or otherwise perceived by the senses, has no
name in the Waicuri language. There are no nouns whatever for expressing
virtues, vices, or the different dispositions of the mind, and there exist only a
few adjectives of this class, namely, merry, sad, lazy, and angry, all of which
merely denote such humors as can be perceived in a person’s face. All terms
relating to rational human and civil life, and a multitude of words for signi-
fying other objects, are entirely wanting, so that it would be a vain trouble to
look in the Waicuri vocabulary for the following expressions: /ife, death,
weather, time, cold, heat, world, rain, understanding, will, memory, knowledge,
honor, decency, consolation, peace, quarrel, member, joy, imputation, mind,
Jriend, friendship, truth, bashfulness, enmity, faith, love, hope, wish, desire, hate,
anger, gratitude, patience, meckness, envy, industry, virtue, vice, beauty, shape,
sickness, danger, fear, occasion, thing, punishment, doubt, servant, master, vir-
gin, gudgment, suspicion, happiness, happy, reasonable, bashful, decent, clever,
moderate, pious, obedient, rich, poor, young, old, agreeable, lovely, friendly,
half, quick, deep, round, contended, more, less, to greet, to thank, to punish, to
be silent, to promenade, to complain, to worship, to doubt, to buy, to flatter, to
caress, to persecute, to dwell, to breathe, to imagine, to idle, to insult, to console,
to live, and a thousand words of a similar character.t

The word Living they have neither as a noun nor as a verb, neither in a
natural nor a moral sense; but only the adjective alive. Bad, narrow, short,
distant, little, &c., they cannot express unless by adding the negation ja or
rat to the words good, wide, long, near, ant much. 'Vhey have particular
words for signifying an old man, an old woman, a young man, a young woman,
and so forth; but the terms old or young do not exist in their language. The
Waicuri contains only four words tor denoting the different colors, insomuch
that the natives cannot distinguish in their speech yellow from red, blue from
green, black from brown, white from ash-colored, &ce.

Now let the reader imagine how difficult it is to impart to the Californians
any knowledge of European affairs; to interpret for them some article from a

* Waitcuri. Father Begert’s very curious account of the language is contained on pages
177-194 of the ‘‘ Nachrichten.” It comprises, besides the general remarks on the chars
acteristic features of the language, the Lord’s Prayer and the Creed, both with literal and
free translations, and the conjugation of a verb.—W. W. T.—The Literature of American
Aboriginal Languages, by Hermann E. Ludewig, with Additions and Corrections, by Professor
William W. Turner. London, 1858, p. 245.

It may be remarked in this place, that the author’s name is printed in three different ways,
viz: Beger, Begert, and Baegert. .In writing ‘‘ Baegert,” I follow Waitz, who probably
gives the correct spelling of the name.

+ The author adds; ‘‘And all nouns in general that end in German in heit, keit, niss,
ung, and schaft.” .

{ It will hardly be necessary to mention that the Waicuri words must be pronounced as
German. Excepting the tsch, which is replaced by the equivalent English sound tsh, the
orthography of the author has strictly been preserved.

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. 395

Madrid newspaper, if one happens to be seen in California a year or more after
its appearance ; or to enlarge upon the merits of the Saints, and to explain, for
instance, how they renounced all vanity, forsaking princely possessions and
even kingdoms, and distributed their property among the poor; how their lives
were spent in voluntary poverty, vhastity, and humility; and, further, that
they subjected themselves for years to the severest penances, conquered their
passions and subdued their inclinations; that they devotgd daily eight and
more hours to prayer and contemplation; that they disregarded worldly con-
cerns and even their own lives; slept on the bare ground, and abstained from
meat and wine. For want of words, the poor preacher has to place his finger
to his mouth in order to illustrate eating; and concerning the comforts of life,
every Californian will tell him that he never, as long as he lived, slept in a
bed; that he is entirely unacquainted with such articles as bread, wine, and
beer; and that, excepting rats and mice, he hardly ever tasted any kind of
meat. .

The above-mentioned and a great many other words are wanting in the
Waicuri language, simply because those who speak it never use these terms;
their almost animal-like existence and narrow compass of ideas rendering the
application of such expressions superfluous. But concerning heat or cold, rain
or sickness, they content themselves by saying, 7é ts warm, it rains, this or
that person is sick, and nothing else. Sentences like the following: “The
sickness has much weakened a certain person;” or, “cold is less endurable
than heat ;”’ or, “after rain follows sunshine,” &c., are certainly very simple
in themselves and current among all peasants in Europe, yet infinitely above
the range of thought and speech of the Californians.

They cannot express the degrees of relationship, for instance, father, mother,
son, brother, nor the parts of the human body, nor many other words, such as
word or speech, breath, pain, comrade, §c., singly and without prefixing the
possessive pronouns my, thy, our, §c. 'They say, therefore, beddre, eddre, tigre,
kepedare, &c., that is, my, thy, his, our father ; and bécue, écue, ticue, kepécue,
that is, my, thy, his, our mother. So also mapa, etapa, tapd, that is, my, thy,
his forehead. Minami, einamu, tinami, that is, my, thy, his nose; betania,
etania, tishania, my, thy, his word; menembet, enembei, tenembet, my, thy, his
pain, &c. But no Californian who speaks the Waicuri is able to say what the
words are, cue, apa, nami, tania, and nembet, express, for father, forehead,
word, or pain are significations which they never thought of using in a general
sense, and far less has it ever entered their minds to speak, for instance, of the
duties of a father, of a gloomy, a serene, a narrow or large forehead, or to make
a long, a flat or an aquiline nose the subject of their conversation.

The Waicuri language is exceedingly deficient in prepositions and conjunc-
tions. Of the first class of words, there exist only two that have a definite ap-
plication, namely, tina, on or upon, and déve or tipitshed, which is equivalent
to the phrase on account of or for (propter.) The prepositions owt, in, before,
through, with, for (pro,) against, by, &c., are either represented by the words
me, pe, and te, which have ali the same meaning, or they are not expressed at
all. The article is entirely wanting, and the nouns are not declined. The
* conjunction ¢tshie, and, is always placed after the words which it has to connect ;
the other conjunctions, such as (hat, but, than, because, neither, nor, yet, as,
though, &c., are all wanting, and likewise the relative pronouns which and who,
so frequently occurring in other languages. ‘They have no adverbs derived
from adjectives, and hardly any of the primitive class. The comparative and
superlative cannot be expressed, and even the words more and less do not exist,
and instead of saying, therefore, Peter is taller and has more than Paul, they
have to use the paraphrase, Peter is tall and has much, Paul is not tall and
has not much.

396 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

Passing to the verbs, I will mention that these have neither a conjunctive
nor a mandative mood, and only an imperfect optative mood, and that the pas-
sive form is wanting as well as the reciprocal verb, which is used in the Spanish
and French languages. ‘The verbs have only one mood and three tenses, viz.,
a present, preterit, and future, which are formed by affixing certain endings
to the root of the verb, namely, in the present re or reke ; in the preterit rikzra,
rujere, raupe, or raupere; in the future me, méje or éneme.*

Sometimes the matives prefix the syllable kw or a & alone to the plural of the
verb, or change its first syllable into ku; for example, piabake, to fight, wmuti,
to remember, jake, to chat; but kupiabake, kumutu, and kudke, when they
will indicate that there are several persons fighting, remembering, or chatting. A
few of their verbs have also a preterit passive participle; for example, tshzpake,
to beat, tshipitshiirre, a person that has been beaten, plural kutepad. Some
nouns and adjectives are likewise subject to changes in the plural number, as,
for instance, drat, woman, kdnai, women; entuditd, ugly or bad, and entudi-
tamma,t bad or ugly women. Be expresses J, me (mihi,) me (me) and my ;
ez means thou, thee (tibi,) thee (te) and thy, and so on through all the personal
and possessive pronouns. Yet becun or beticén signifies also my, and ecén or
evticun, thy.

They know nothing of metaphors, for which reason the phrase blessed ts the
JSruit of thy womb in the “ Hail Mary” has simply been replaced by thy child.
On the other hand they are very ingenious in giving names to objects with
which they were before unacquainted, calling, for instance, the door, mouth ;
bread, the light; iron, the heavy ; wine, bad water ; a gun, bow; the function-
aries of the mission, bearers of canes ; the Spanish captain, wild or cruel ; oxen
and cows, deer ; horses and mules ¢itshénu-tsha, that is, child of a wise mother ;
and the missionary, in speaking of or to him, éd-pa-tu, which means one who
has his house in the north, .&c.

In order to converse in such a barbarous and poor language, a European has
to change, as it were, his whole nature and to become almost a Calformian him-
self; but in teaching the natives the doctrines of the Christian religion in their
own language, he is very often compelled to make use of paraphrases which,
when translated into a civilized language, must have an odd and sometimes
even ridiculous sound to Europeans; and as the reader may, perhaps, be curi-
ous to know a little more of this peculiar language, I will give as specimens
two articles from the Waicuri catechism, namely, the Lord’s Prayer and the
Creed, each with a double interpretation, and also the whole conjugation of the
verb amukiri. t

Concerning this Californian Lord’s Prayer and Creed and their interpreta-
tions, the reader will take notice of the following explanatory remarks: -

1. The first translation, which stands immediately under the Californian text,
is perfectly literal and shows the structure of the Waicuri language. This
version must necessarily produce a bad effect upon European ears; whereas the
second translation, which is less literal and therefore more intelligible, may serve
to convey an idea how the Waicuri text sounds to the natives themselves as .
well as to those who understand their idiom, and. have become accustomed, by
long practice, to the awkward position of the words, the absence of relative
pronouns and prepositions, and the other deficiencies of the language.

* From the conjugation of the verb amukiri, given at the end of this chapter, it is evident
that these endings have no reference to the person or number of the tenses, but may be indif-
ferently employed. }

t This compound word illustrates well the polysynthetic character of the Waicuri language.

{ We cannot be too thankful to Father Baegert, who, with all his oddity and eccentricity,
has had the philological taste to preserve and explain a specimen of the Waicuri—a fayor
the greater, as neither Venegas nor the polished Clavigero has preserved any specimen of
a Californian language, much less a verb in full.

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. 397

2. The'words holy, church, God, ghost, communion, grace, will, cross, virgin,
name, hell, kingdom, bread, trespass, temptation, creator, forgiveness, life, resur-
rection, Lord, daily, Almighty, third, c., are wanting in the Waicuri language,
and have either been paraphrased, when it was feasible, or replaced by corre-
sponding Spanish words, in order to avoid too lengthy and not very intelligible

esentences. Some words that could be omitted without materially changing the
sense, such as daz/y in the Lord’s Prayer, and Lord in the Creed, have been
entirely dropped.

3. The sentence “he shall come to judge the living and the dead” could not
be literally translated, because the Californians are unable to comprehend the
moral and theological sense of that passage and others of similar character.
Nor could they be taught in the Creed that the flesh will live again, for by
“flesh” they understand nothing but the meat of deer and cows. ‘They would
laugh at the idea that men were also flesh, and consequently be led to believe in
the resurrection of deer and cows, when they were told that the flesh will rise
again on the day of judgment.

4. In the Waicuri language Heaven is usually called aéna, that is, the above ;
and also, but less frequently, tekerekddatemba, which means curved or arched
earth or land, because the firmament resembles a vault or arch. Hel/ they have
been taught to call the fire that never expires; but this expression is not em-

ployed in the Waicuri Creed.

The Lord’s Prayer in the Waicuri language, with a literal translation, showing the exact
succession of the words.

Kepé-dare tekerekfdatemba dai, ei-ri akdétuiké-pu-me, tshékarrake-
Our Father archedearth thouart, thee O! that acknowledge all will, praise
pu-me ti tshie: ectn gracia—ri attime caté tekerekadatemba tshie; ei-

all will people and: thy grace O! that have will we arched earth and; thee
ri jebarrakéme ti pu jatipe datemba, pde ei jebarrakére, aéna *kéa; kepectin bte

OQ! that obey will men all here earth, as thee obey, above are; our food
kepe kén jatupe untairi; cate Kuitsharraké téi tshie kepectin atacAmara, pde kuitsharrakére
us give this day; us forgive thou and our evil, as forgive
caté tshie cévape atukiara kepetujaké; caté tikakamba téitshie | cuvumerad caté ué
we also they .- evil us do; us help thouand desire will not we anything
atukiara; kepe kakunja+ pe atacara tshie. Amen.

evil; us protect from evil and. Amen.

The same in a less literal translation.

Our Father, Thou art in the Heaven; O that all people may acknowledge and praise Thee!
O that we may have Thy grace and Heaven! O that all men may obey Thee here in the
world as obey Thee who are above! Our food give us on this day, and forgive us our sins,
as we also forgive those who do us harm; and help us that we may not desire anything
sinful, and protect us from evil. Amen.

The twelve articles of the Creed literally translated.

Trimanjure pe Dios Tiare ureti-pu-puduéne, taupe me _ buard uretirikiri

Ibelieve in God hisFather make all can, this of nothing has made
tekerekidatemb& atemba tshie. Irimdnjure tshie pe Jesu Christo titshanu ibe te
arched earth earth and. JIbelieve also in Jesus Christ his son alone —

tidre, éte punjére pe LEspirituSanto, peddra tshie me Santa Maria virgen.
hisfather’s, man made by Holy Ghost, born and of Saint Mary virgin.
Irimdnjure tshie tdu-vérepe Jesu Christo hibitsherikiri tenembet apdnne iebitshene
Ibelieve also this same Jesus Christ suffered has hispain great commanding
témme pe Judea Pontio Pilato; kutikiirre rikiri tina cruz, pibikiri, kejenjita — rikiri
being in Judea Pontius Pilate; extended been on cross, has died, under earth buried is
tshie; k€ritshéu atemba binju; meakénju untdéiri tipé-tshetshutipé rikiri; tshukiti
- also; gone down earth below; _ three days alive again hasbeen; gone up
tekerekadatemba, penek&a tshie me titshuketa te Dios tiare ureti-pu-puduéne,
arched earth, sits also his righthand of God hisfather make all can,

398 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

aiptireve tenkfe utetiri-ku-méje atacémma atacémmara ti tshie. Irimdnjure pe

from thence reward give come will good bad men also. Ibelieve in
Espiritu Santo; irim&njure epi ‘Santa Iglesia catholica, communion te kunjukarét
Holy Ghost; Ibelieve there'is Holy Catholic Church, communion — washed

ti tshie. Irimdnjure kuitsharakéme Dios kumbate-didi-re, kutéve-didi-re ti tshie
eople also. LIbelieve forgive wilk God hate well, confess well men and
fica atacdmmara pdnne pu. Irimanjure tshie tipé tshetshutipé me tibikiu ti pid;
their bad great all. Ibelieve and alive again will be dead people all:
enjéme tipe déi méje tucdva tshie. Amen. 5

then alive ever will be the same also. Amen.

The same less literally translated.

I believe in God the Father, who can make everything; he has made of nothing Heaven
and earth. I believe also in Jesus Christ, the only Son of his Father; was made man by
the Holy Ghost; was born of the Virgin Mary. I believe also this same Jesus Christ
suffered great pain while Poritius Pilate was commanding in Judea: he was extended on
the cross; he died and was buried; he went below the earth; he became alive again in three
days; he went up to Heaven; he sitteth at the right hand of God his Father, who can make
everything; he will come from thence to give rewards to the good and bad. I believe in the

‘Holy Ghost; I believe there is a Holy Catholic Church and communion of the baptized. I

believe God will forgive those men who thoroughly hate and thoroughly confess all their
great sins. I believe also all dead men will become alive again, and then they will be
always alive. Amen.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB AMUKiRI, TO PLAY.

Present. .
Sing. be I) play, &c.
ei thou |
tutat he ie
Plur. cate we amukiri—re
peté you

tucaiva they

Preterit.

Sing. be 1 have played, &c.

ei thou tetrad
amukiri—rikiri

tutat he maitre
Plur. caté we api:
: or< —raupe
pete you hie aie
tucdva they P
Future.
Sing. be 1) will play, &c.
el thou
tutau he | amukiri—me
Plur. cate we —méje

peté ‘bey at : —éneme
tucava they

Imperative.

Sing. amukiri tei, play thou.
Plur. amukiri tu, play you.

Optative.
Sing. bée—ri Would to
ei—ri God, I,
tutau—ri | amukiri—rikirikdra } thou, he, ®
Plur. caté—ri or—rujeréra_ ) we, you, they
pete—ri had not

tucdva—riJ played !

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA." 399

APPENDIX.
Note on the Cora and Waicuri languages, by Francisco Pimentel.*

Father Ortega refers in various places to the grammar of the Cora language which he in
tended to write; but the work, if it was ever written, has been lost, since there is no mention
of it, and it is unknown to bibliographers.

The Cora dialect is known also by the names of Chora, Chota, and Nayarita. This last
name comes from the fact that it was spoken, and is still so, in the mountains of Nayarit in
the State of Jalisco. There is another idiom called Cora in California, which is a dialect of
the Guaicura or Vaicura, differing from that spoken in Jalisco. Ihave compared various
words of the Guaicura and the Cora of Jalisco, and have found them entirely different.

Ezamples.
Cora. Vaicura.

Weitere ponte ea ceataes Miyaoppawsiscse ce tees ee Are.
SOREL oan we Cee acts AU Petehbe sez. sibs sie Dai.
Liu ED ah LO, SEO Li ty Munaicmie? se.) in 8 226 Rus
Wie te) HO OU Mevath gs ps4... oe eee i
Anders Sis DOSS Boe fs Apa Ee SUR eae cals Tschie
IGOR eee 2h Passe selec PAVIG = reece oescliaiau ot Seleas Taupe.
Barth orjworld 22/22. \s5 ssic3 @hianacat 5244-2 esses - Datemba.
IIPOVO eiceG: aa. Wo Reba s Me hteyas- sc bicigs Sieroe ston! snue Aenha.
1 EN 00 (Paes Cay eee SS Gueah tee oc cceisgen oe Bue
To give ---.-------------- Rie eel =Reeraatt @ we vy ae Ken
10257. SA ee ee Se, se age Met Catieoctenas cacencleeasee Untairi.
Marpardon 25. 4. aseectes MIROUDIA 5S) ecickl cise Stew Kuitscha.
HiGwh---2 2. ASE REE OR mor ace MUP ati Saop cheese the. Set Pae.
Wbedient 4.< - 42. se tess ee Teatzahuateacame---.------ Tebarrakere.
DD he eet hus manomieinscacces LUNG) cose SRR Se ES! Ra.
SWE AE oot oorioee ADIOS ooo ayo Se ee ee Ue.
PEG AE Se he oe terse, ba ey Neapues Nea aes -=/-£ eases oe Be.
gC) TS peeps are ae er ora MPIC, BP elated wind Pe Aa Ei.
ONS a Bs ie A ene OHS BOD = pis seria, oa mnine Tutau.
WV Glee ae ele seat amtse| VEC cuccigalsamicles ss steeecimie'> Cate.
PGi ie Es OSes a ee a AMMO AT ee olden cemtnis sioe =) NEetTs
Wie Ses Re se Ee Su Be ete GNM.) AED 2) 5a) - elarele mlm Tucava.
WAP o- Boece beebo ds oeet ee se IN ae ean SER Be SS eOr Be, me, mi, m.
JIS? G4606 hongidé: SBE SS SSE 52) 7? Bee ae SSS SEE eee Hi, e, e
13s) Sa SoS CARE ees oa =f Jono lin tyes aah eeseessoec on TOs ts
Onn teae eer as = a2) eee Bie Bnet lye ate sere eis awe Kepe
Iie SU pee See ae eee eee Keme Seeeeiese= += > Secrets Deve
BOM eee ae eh alane <pjo aoe PGE ie eee ose See = eae Tina.
AGEN Cee Sines ajclaniets WEN OR CSO je Se eeeeee cae Amukiri.
SUNG tice S RSS E SG Nope eOesEes Tiperie, tiyaoh. -.-.--..----| Tschanu.

INOSBE eet osm ckicewcocect MP ZOTIt eso Lace ce ete ee ee Namu.

NOTE RELATIVE TO THE AUTHOR.—The only facts concerning the author, which I was
‘able to obtain while engaged in translating his work, are contained in De Backer’s Biblio-
théque des Ecrivains de la Compagnie de Jésus, Liége 1859. Vol. v, p. 28.

The author, whose name is given here as Jacob Begert, was born (1717) at Schlettstadt
(Upper Rhine.) He went to California in 1751 and preached the Gospel there till the decree
of Charles III tore the Jesuits from their missions. On returning to Europe, he retired to
Neuburg in Bavaria, where he died in the month of December, 1772, Clavigero stands as
authority for ascribing the ‘‘ Nachrichten” to him, and it is also mentioned that the ‘‘ Berlin-
sche litterarische Wochenblatt,” (1777, vol. ii, p. 625,) contains an extract of the work.
Meusel’s large work on German authors, entitled ‘‘Das gelehrte Deutschland,” is given as
the source from which these statements are derived.

The ‘‘Nachrichten’’ appeared first in print in 1772, the same year in which the author died,
who consequently could have survived the publication of his work only a short time, The
copy in my hands, which was printed in 1773, is not properly a second edition, but merely a
reprint, in which the most glaring typographical errors are corrected.

* Boletin de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica, Mexico, 1862, tomo viii,
‘num. 11, p. 603, &c.

THE FIRST STEPS

IN THE

STUDY OF HIGH ANTIQUITY IN EUROPE,

BY A. MORLOT.

FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

Ir is well known that in most countries of Europe there are found axes,
wedges, hammers, knives, arrow-heads, &c., all of stone. The axes and wedges
of stone are often called by the common people “thunderbolts,” (a designation
which has also been applied to certain fossils, such as the belemnites;) and it is
curious to meet with Fiat notion, not only in Brazil, where it was probably
introduced by the Portuguese, but even among the Malays* and the Javanese,
whilst the Japanese and the Chinese revere these objecfs as relics of their
ancestors.t The truth as to their meaning seems to have dawned but later in
Europe. Thus when, in 1734, the antiquary and numismat, Mahudel, read to
the Academy of Paris a paper ‘on the so-called thunderbolts,” showing that
they were the first instruments used by man, he appears to have been reproached
for “not giving the reasons, which prove the impossibility of such stones being
formed in the clouds.” In 1758 there appeared a remarkable work by Goguet,
on the origin of the laws, arts, and sciences, in which the matter is treated in a
perfectly rational manner.{ In the preface the author lays down a principle
which deserves to be given textually: “ When I met with an almost total
absence of facts and historical monuments, particularly for the first ages, I con-
sulted what the authors tell us of the customs of savage nations. I thought
that the habits of those people would furnish sure and correct information con-
cerning the state of the first tribes.” Further on, (chap. iv, book 1,) Goguet,
pointing to the stone axes and other objects of the same sort found in Europe,
recognizes them as similar to those of the savages, and as having been used by
our ancestors, before the latter had become acquainted with metal. He then
goes on to speak of the weapons, instruments, and ornaments of copper (bronze)
met in certain old graves in England, Switzerland, Germany, and chiefly in the
north, and he comes to the conclusion that copper (bronze) has been used
instead of iron, (a tenu lieu du fer,) which he finds confirmed by the most
ancient historical traditions. Lastly, he points out that iron could only have
been known and used later, because its common ores are not distinguished by
any striking appearance, and because this metal is much more difficult to pro-
duce than copper, which is easily smelted. But Goguet was in advance of his
age, and his valuable archeological remarks were lost to his contemporaries.

Later came M. de Caumont, who treated the matter in a first-rate manner.
He perceived that stone implements had been the earliest in use, and that copper

* George Windsor Earl. ‘‘The Native Races of the Indian Archipelago,” London, 1853;
and “Journal of the Indian Archipelago,’ vol. v, p. 84.

t Von Siebold. ** Archief vor Beschvijving of Japan,’’ quoted by Earl.

tA. Y. Goguet. ‘‘ De l'Origine des Lois, des Arts et des Sciences,’’ sixth edition:
Paris, 1820.

|

STUDY OF HIGH ANTIQUITY IN EUROPE. 40]

and bronze had been introduced before iron. Borrowing, according to his own
acknowledgment, from the language of geologists, he introduced the happy
expression of chronological horizons, to indicate “the periods in the history of
art remarkable for revolutions or for notable changes in the forms and the
character of the monuments.” Without pretending to lay down a general rule,
allowing of no exception, and acknowledging that he owed the idea to Sir R.
Hoare, M. de Caumont also pointed out the following order of succession in the
mode of burial: In the most ancient graves the body of the deceased has been
doubled up, so as to bring the knees in contact with the chin, (as if to take up
as little room as possible.) Later (during the bronze age) the dead were usually
burnt, (which leads to infer the worship of fire.) Lastly, the body was often
laid in the grave, stretched out at full length. But, taken up by his vast
researches on the Roman remains, M. de Caumont treated of the older periods
only in the first volume of his lectures on monumental antiquities—a work
which is in itself a monument of fame for its author.*

It was reserved to the Scandinavian North definitely to open the proper track.

Denmark and the south of Sweden teem with antiquities strewed in the
ground, and with ancient barrows or tombs, raised like hillocks above the sur-
rounding level. These drew attention the more readily, as Roman civilization
had not penetrated so far, and had not left those traces which, for a long time,
exclusively fastened research in the more southern regions of Europe.

At Copenhagen, the Athens of the Scandinavian North, many began already, in
the past century, to collect those axes and wedges of flint, which attract the
eye by their perfect state of preservation, and by their natural lustre. It was
a current idea among men of learning that these objects were symbols and
implements used in the religious ceremonies and practice of the ancient heathens.
It was not ill-conceived. But imagination cannot replace induction. Hence it
was an event of note when a simple merchant, M. Thomsen, whose talent of
observation and rare practical tact, revealed by his ability in collecting coins,
published in 1832 a paper on the antiquities of stone ia the north,t showing
that these objects had been the tools and weapons of a people very like the
modern savages, who are not acquainted with the use of metal.

The activity of Mr. Thomsen remained concentrated on the improvement of
the museum, (Oldnordisk Museum,) which was confided to his care. Thanks
to him, that establishment has grown to be what the Danes may well claim asa
monument of national fame. With the view of furthering the interests of that
museum, Mr. Thomsen published in 1836, again anonymously, a small practical
guide for the study and preservation of northern antiquities.{ The book deserves
particular notice, as being the first in which the chronological classification,
formerly indicated by Goguet, and even hinted at by the Latin poet Lucretius,
(De Rerum Natura, lib. v,) is expressly laid down and actually carried out.
In a chapter on the different periods to which the Pagan antiquities may be
referred, Mr. Thomsen begins by speaking of the implements of stone, of which
he had already treated in his first paper. He then shows that certain sepulchral
chambers, formed of huge boulders, and in which the dead were deposited with-
out being burned, contain the same stone implements, without any traces of
metal. ‘his furnishes him with his first period, which he calls the stone age.
The author then goes on to show, as Goguet, had already done, that copper and
bronze must have been in use before the iron, and he points out how cutting-

——

* De Caumont. ‘‘ Cours d’Antiquités Monumentales, professé a Caen,’ 6 vols., with atlas
of plates: vol. 1: Paris, 1536. ;

+“ Nordisk Tidsskrift for O!dkyndighed,” vol. 1: Copenhagen, 1832. Eighteen pages in
octavo, with three plates. Anonymous. ,

t ** Ledetraad til Nordisk Oldkyndighed.” Copenhagen, 1836. German edition: ‘ Leit-
faden zur Nordischen Atterthumskunde.’”’? Copenhagen, 1837. English edition, by Lord
Ellesmere: ‘‘A Guide to Northern Antiquities.” London, 1848. ‘

26 8

402 STUDY OF HIPH ANTIQUITY IN EUROPE.

implements atid weapons of bronze alone, without any iron, are found in certain
graves, differing from those of the preceding period, both by their structure
and also by their dead having been burned. Hence he deduces a second period,
which he ealls the bronze age. Next comes the tron age, distinguished also by
a new system of burial and by the first appearance of silver, which was wanting
in the bronze age, though the latter already worked gold. Thus, what iron is
now, and has long been, for industry and civilization in general, bronze was
formerly, and stone was still earlier. Mr.'Thomsen also points out, in his Guide,
that no traces of alphabetical inscriptions occur before the appearance of iron,
and that each of the three periods is distinguished by its peculiar style of orna-
ment.

While these labors were being prosecuted in Denmark, others not less import-
ant were undertaken in Sweden. Wm. S. Nilsson, professor of zoology at the
flourishing University of Lund, began the publication of a great work on the
fauna of Scandinavia. Considering his subject from a comprehensive point
of view, Professor Nilsson included in it man himself and his origin. This
called his attention to the flint implements, and he formed a collection of
them, constituting now the chief ornament of the museum of Lund. He
published his archeological researches first as a chapter on the history of
the chase and fishery in the Seandinavian North, inserted in the first volume
of his Fauna, (Lund, 1835,) and later, with more ample details, in a separate
quarto volume, entitled “The Aborigines of the Scandinavian North, a
treatise of Comparative Ethnography and a contribution towards the History
of the Development of Humanity.” ‘This work, comprising 280 figures,
appeared at Lund, in four parts, from 1838 to 1843. The author handles his
subject with all the superiority of real genius, expressing thought, deep and
rich, in a style characterized by noble simplicity, often verging on the sublime.
The illustrious Swede begins by showing that the comparative method of the
naturalist must be applied to the study of the prehistoric ages, just as has been
done, when the geologist compared the extinct creations with our present organic
world. He then applies that method, not in a general manner, as had been done
before, but entering into all the details required by serious scientific research.
He compares, one by one, the flint implements of the North with those of the
savages. He also points out the striking analogy between the most ancient
graves in Sweden and the modern huts of the Greenlanders, with a view to
prove that the abodes of the dead were imitated from the dwellings of the living,
the primitive type of which seems to have been preserved to this day in Green-
land. Remarking, that an ancient race cannot be determined by the shape of
its weapons and tools, nor even by the style of its graves, but only by its osteo-
logical characteristics, Professor Nilsson takes a review of the skulls, and he
shows that the type of the aborigines is still reproduced by the Laplanders,
whose ancestors seem to have once held the whole North. He finally confirms
this by a very curious inquiry into the traditions and myths of the North, apply-
ing here, also, the principle of comparison, and showing, for example, how the
arrival of the first Europeans had given rise, among the Esquimaux, to similar
tales.

The work in question, as its title proclaims, treats only of the primitive period,
marked by the total absence of all metal, and it contains only a few passing
allusions to the later periods.

In 1844 Professor Nilsson published at Lund a paper “On the successive
periods of human development in Scandinavia, during the prehistorical ages.”
In this treatise, which is quite as remarkable as the first, although of much less
extent, the three ages—of the stone, the bronze, and the iron—are at once
recognized as established, and the author enters, respecting each of them, into a
series of details, which constitute the main body of the archzological principles,
since then current in the North. Thus, when speaking of the bronze age, the

STUDY OF HIGH ANTIQUITY IN EUROPE. 403

author points out the striking uniformity of the bronze weapons in different
parts of Europe, and this leads him to the conclusion that the civilization of
that period must have spread from one and the same centre, situated, probably,
somewhere on the borders of the Mediterranean. The author further remarks,
that the introduction of bronze, as also, later, the introduction of iron, coinciding
with an essential change in the mode of burial, betrays a profound change, each
time, in the religious system. Hence the conclusion, that each of those periods
was marked by the invasion of a new race, or, to use the author’s own terms,
by afresh wave of population; for we can hardly imagine that nations would be
brought to change their religion, simply because they had acquired a new metal.

The considerable amount of labor required by the publication of his Scandi-
navian fauna obliged Professor Nilsson to abandon the field of archeological
inquiry. But he had laid the broad and solid foundations of that combination of
researches into the past and present state of mankind, which deserves to be
acknowledged as a science of its own, under the denomination he proposed, of
Comparative Ethnography. Nilsson has achieved in this branch what Cuvier
has done for palzeontology, when he applied his principles of comparative anatomy
to the study of fossil bones.** These two great men have both developed and
applied the true method; and this is much more important than any brilliant
discovery, a good method being the most powerful instrument of discovery, as
Cuvier himself remarked.

To the Swede Nilsson and to the Dane Thomsen, happily both still among
the living, we are thus indebted for a good method, bringing archeology within
the pale of natural science, and for a practical classification, based on the form
and matter, and on the use of the relics of the past—that is, on positive facts,
relative to industry and arts.

The classification into three ages—of the stone, the bronze, and the iron—reealls
to mind the distinction established by Werner and his contemporaries of the
geological formations, into Primary, Secondary and Tertiary. It has been equally
useful, for it began to introduce order into the chaos of antiquities of all ages,
thrown indiscriminately together in the museums, so as to cause these to look
more like curiosity-shops than like scientific establishments.

* Retired from his professorship, Mr. Nilsson has again taken up archeology. Heis now
publishing a new and much enlarged edition of his Scandinavian Aborigines. A German
translation of this new edition is appearing at Hamburg.

PRIZE QUESTIONS,

EXTRACT FROM THE PROGRAMME OF THE HOLLAND SOCIETY OF
SCIENCES AT HARLEM, FOR 1865.

The Society held its 113th annual session 20th May, 1865. Since the annual
session of 1864 the society has published the following volumes of its acts :

1. Vol. xix, 2d part, H. R. Géppert, Uber Einschliisse im Diamant.

2. Vol. xx, lst part, P. Bleeker, Description de quelques espéces de Cobitioides

et de Cyprinoides de Ceylon.

3. Vol. xx, 2d part, P. Bleeker, Description des espéces de Silures de Suri-

- name, conservées aux Musées de Leide et de Amsterdam.

4. Vol. xxi, Ist part, Dr. Hermann Vogelsang, Die Vulkane der Eifel in

threr Bildungsweise erldutert.

5. Vol. xxi, 2d part, P. Duchassaing de Fonbressin et Giovanni Michelotti,

. Spongiaires de la mer Caraibe.
6. Vol. xxii, 1st part, Joseph Barnard Davis, On Synostotic Crania among
Aboriginal Races of Man.

It has been decided that the memoir presented by M. J. Beissel de Borcette,
Die Bryozoen der Aachner Kreidebildung, shall form part of the acts of the
society.

In Pio to. give greater publicity to the scientific labors of the savants of the
Netherlands, the Society have decided to publish, at its own expense, in the
French language, (or in Latin, for descriptive systematic memoirs,) the Nether-
land Archives of the Exact and Natural Sciences, published by the Holland
Society of Sciences at Harlem.

The publication of this journal, which will contain as well original memoirs
in extenso as translations or summaries of the memoirs of learned Netherlanders
which have appeared elsewhere, will not be periodical, but will be regulated
according to the number of memoirs presented. It will be edited by the per-
petial secretary, M. EK. H. von Baumhauer, assisted by MM. R. von Rees, J. von
der Hoeven, H. J. Halbertsma, and D. Bierens de Haan.

The Society thinks proper to repeat the following questions, and requests that
they be answered before the first of January, 1867:

1. The fishes of the Indian Archipelago have engaged the researches of a
learned Hollander. The Society desires that the other vertebrata of those
islands, especially those of Borneo, Celebes, and the Moluccas, and, above all,
those of New Guinea, should be the subject of a like examination. It will
award its gold medal to the naturalist who shall send it either the description
of some new species of mammifers, birds or reptiles of those islands, or a memoir
containing new and remarkable facts regarding the structure and mode of life of
some of those animals.

*2. The Society desires as exact a determination as possible of the errors of
the tables of the moon which we owe to M. Hansen, by the occultations of the
Pleiades, observed during the last revolution of the node of the lunar orbit.

3. The celebrated mechanician Ruhmkorff has obtained sparks of extraordi-
nary length by the machines of induction which bear his name. The Society
desires to obtain a determination, by theoretical and experimental researches, of
the laws which govern the length and intensity of the sparks in machines of
different size and construction.

PRIZE QUESTIONS. 405

4. What difference is there between the perception of sounds with one and
with both ears? Precise researches are requested regarding this difference, and
on the influence in general of the duality in the organ of hearing.

5. According to the researches of M. Pasteur and other savants, fermentation
is owing to the development of cryptogams and infusoria. The Society wishes
new and positive researches to be made on this subject, and, if necessary, an
exact description to be given of these plants and animals, and their mode of
action. .

6. What is the best construction for steam vessels designed to clear rivers of
the masses of ice which obstruct the course of the water? It is expected that
in answering this question notice will be taken of all that practice has decided
upon this subject, as well in our own country as abroad.

7. With the exception of some formations on the eastern frontier of the king-
dom of the low countries, the geolgoical strata of that region covered with
deposits of alluvium and diluvium are still but little known. An account is
desired of all that has been brought to light with certainty, whether by borings
executed at different places or by other observations, respecting the nature of
those formations.

8. It is known, chiefly by the labors of M. Roemer, at Breslau, that many
of the fossils which are found near Groningen belong to the same species with
those occurring in the silurian formations of the island of Gothland. This has
led M. Roemer to the conclusion that the diluvium of Groningen has been
transported from the island just named; but such an origin appears to comport
but little with the direction in which this diluvium is deposited—a direction
which would rather indicate a transportation from the southern part of Norway.
The Society desires to see this question decided by an exact comparison of the
fossils of Groningen with the minerals and fossils of the silurian and other
formations of that part of Norway, with a regard at the same time to the modi-
fications which the conveyance from a remote country and its consequences
may have caused those minerals and fossils to undergo.

9. The combustion of steel, iron, and other metals in oxygen is accompanied
by the apparition of a multitude of incandescent particles thrown off from the
surface of the body in combustion, and which are found after the phenomenon
at the bottom of the vessel in which the combustion is effected. The same
fact is observed in the luminous electric arch of a strong battery between two
metallic rheophores, one of which at least is of iron or steel. The Society
asks an explanation, based upon new and decisive researches, of the cause of
this phenomenon.

10. We request a continuation of the remarkable researches of M. Brewster
on the liquids and gases which fill the small cavities sometimes found in crys-
tallized minerals.

11. The Society invites an exact anatomical comparison between the skeleton
of the Cryptobranchus japonicus and that of the fossil salamanders of Oeningen,
as well as that of the salamander of Roth.

12. An exact description, with figures, of the skeleton and muscles of the
Sciurus vulgaris, compared with what is known on this subject of the Lemurides
and Chiromys, is requested, in order that the place to be assigned to this last
species in the natural classification may be determined with more certainty than
has been heretofore possible.

13. The Society wishes an anatomical description, with figures, of the Ameri-
can Potto, (Cercoleptes Illiger, Vivera candivolvula Pallas,) compared with the
structure of other mammifers, as the Nasuwa aud Procyon, and with that of the
quadrumana. The attention of the author is especially directed to the commu-
nication of Mr. Owen, (Proceedings of Zoological Society 1835, p. 119-124.)

14. The physiological action of carbonic acid on the animal organism, espe-
cially that of man, is recommended as the object of new and decisive experiments.

406 PRIZE QUESTIONS.

15. It is desirable that exact researches should be instituted respecting the
distribution of plants and animals in the coal strata of different countries.

16. A memoir of Savart, communicated as an extract in the Journal of the
Institute, No. 313 and 314, by M. Masson, contains the account of experiments
on the simultaneous movement of two pendulums. ‘The Society would wish
these experiments to be repeated and explained, if their result be confirmed.

17. Late researches on beats and the resulting sounds do not seem to lead
necessarily to an abandonment of the principle of Daniel Bernouilli, of the coex-
istence of small oscillations for vibrations, which are propagated in an indefinite
medium. ‘he case is wholly different when the question relates to vibrations
with fixed modes and centres in a circumscribed medium. The Society invites
new researches, as well experimental as theoretical, on the resulting sounds and
the vibrations of stretched cords and membranes which produce them by their
combinations and their interference.

18. It seems that the phenomenon, known as Porrets’s, of the electrical trans-
lation of matter across a porous diaphragm, is not an isolated fact, but that by
considering it in its relations with other phenomena it will be found to be a par-
ticular case of a general action. New researches therefore are invited respect-
ing this phenomenon, especially with reference to those of M. Hittorff, on the
translation of elements in the electrolysis.

19. Recent researches have evinced an important analogy between the con-
ducting power of bodies for heat and for the electric current. ‘The substances
compared in this respect were all good conductors of electricity. The Society
desires researches on the conducting power as regards heat of certain isolating
or slightly conducting substances, az glass, marble, &c., and a discussion of the
results obtained, in reference to what has been disclosed by the remarkable
researches of M. Gaugain respecting the conducting power and inductive capacity
of such substances for electricity. :

20. New experimental researches are requested respecting the interior friction
or viscosity of liquids in movement, and on their friction against the walls of
the channel or tube in which they are moving. It is particularly desirable
that a viscid liquor, for instance a thick oil, should be experimentally studied
under this point of view.

21. The Society solicits further exact researches upon the remarkable phe-
nomena of dissociation discovered by M. Sainte-Claire-Deville.

For this year the following questions, whose term expires the first of January,
1867, have been proposed :

1. An exact determination of the heat produced by the combustion of the
glycerides is desired.

2. The fractional distillation and fractional precipitation, extolled as means
for separating from one another bodies homologous in their mixtures, are, as
such, very insufficient. The Society invites a’research for better means of ob-
taining that result.

3. It seems that the diminution of temperature in the successive strata of the
atmospheric air is not equal under different iatitudes; it is desirable to have
this point so interesting for meteorology elucidated by new researches.

4. The Society wishes an illustrated memoir containing very exact micro-
scopic researches on the formation and development of the egg in the ovary of
fishes and birds.

5. A monography as complete as possible of the lichens of the Netherlands.

6. We possess very exact determinations of the density and of the dilatation
of mixtures of ethylic alcohol and water by Gilpin, Gay Lussac, and M. von
Baumhauer. Determinations not less exact are requested for mixtures of water.
and methylie alcohol.

7. We only know with sufficient exactness the density of very few bodies
soluble in water which might not be found by the ordinary hydraulic balance

PRIZE QUESTIONS. 407

Society requests the exact determination, at different temperatures, of at least
fifty bodies soluble in water.

8. Of several plants, for instance, Aesculus hippocastanum, Amygdalus com-
munis, Quercus pedunculata, Tilia parvifolia et grandifolia, Geranium, &c., a
certain quantity of the ovules do not become developed. It is desirable that
the cause of this constant anomaly should be explained by microscopic re-
searches, illustrated by figures. These researches should comprise at least ten
species of plants.

9. In volumetric researches the condensation of gases on surfaces exercises
an embarrassing influence, inasmuch as the deficiency of precise data of such
condensation at different temperatures and different pressures does not permit
us to apply the necessary corrections. ‘The Society solicits new researches on
this important question.

10. Determinations of the temperature of deep stagnant waters (lacs) at dif-
ferent depths.

11. A minute description, based on new experiments, of fecundation in the
family of the Graminex. An exact answer is sought to the following questions :

a. Do the anthers open before, after, or at the moment of the separation of
the glumellz (paleze?)

6. Is the pollen strewn upon the stigmas before, after, or at the moment of
the separation of the glumelle ?

ce. Does this separation of the glumelle influence the descent of the pollen
upon the stigmas?

d. What exterior causes may facilitate or prevent this descent of the pollen
upon the stigmas ?

e. Do the stigmas secrete a matter qualified to retain the grains of pollen ?

J By what route do the pollenary tubes descend towards the embryonic
sack ¢

These researches should comprise, in the first place, wheat, barley, rye, oats,
and next as large a number as possible of other plants pertaining to different
classes of the family of Graminez.

The Society would recall to mind that last year it proposed the following
questions to be answered before the first of January 1866 :

1. A complete embryology of the Squalus spinax and the Squalus acanthias,
from the egg in the ovary to the complete formation of the young fish.

2. A critical nomenclature of the Annulata and Turbellaria, which are found
in the interior and on the coasts of the Netherlands, based upon new researches.

3. A comparative myology of the anterior members of reptiles and of birds,

with reference to the denomination of the corresponding or homologous muscles

in mammifers, and especially in man.

4. The form of the figures, named after Lichtenberg, whether produced by
positive or negative electricity, being different, a new and satisfactory explana-
tion of that difference is requested.

5. Researches are invited on the molecular change produced in the wires of
different metals by the sustained action of an electric current as strong as is
possible without producing fusion.

6. A complete embryology of the Lepas anatifera.

7. A comparative anatomical description of the remains of birds which are
found in different geological formations.

8. The origin of several rocks being still unknown to us, the Society wishes
that at least one rock, at the choice of the author, should be examined with a
view of deciding whether it has been deposited from a solution in water, or
formed by the solidification of a mass melted by heat.

9. The preparation of solid carbonic acid presenting no longer any difficulty,
or danger, a complete examination is needed of its physical properties.

10. A microscopic and chemical examination is requested of the matter, dif-

408 PRIZE QUESTIONS.

fusing a strong odor of musk, which is secreted by glands placed near the jaw-
bones of crocodiles.

11. An exact anatomical description of the sturgeon, (Accipenser sturio,) with
a monography of its development from the egg to the adult animal.

12. A comparison of the remains of castors and emydes found in the peat
moss, in localities where those animals no longer live, with the living species
of those animals.

13. If there be earthquakes which are only attributable to subsidence of
strata situated at a greater or less depth, by what distinctive characters can
they be recognized ?

14. It has been observed that oxygen does not conduct the currents of in-
duction of the apparatus of Ruhmkorff, except when its tension has been reduced
to the pressure of 6 mm. of mercury; and that, from that point, its conducting
power augments, when the diminution of tension is continued until it reaches
0.5 mm., when its powers appear to have attained a maximum. It is desirable
that this phenomenon should be confirmed by new experiments, and that, by
comparing it with what is analogous in regard to other gases, its cause should
be made known.

15. New experimental researches on the velocity of propagation of electricity.

16. A methodical description of the remains of plants of the tertiary forma-
tion in the Netherlands.

17. Should metallic masses in a building protected by a lightning conductor
be placed in communication with the latter or not? On this subject new re-
searches, both experimental and theoretical, are requested.

18. A series of new experimental researches on the influence of mechanical
forces upon chemical actions.

19. What are the constituent elements of the fatty body in the larve of
insects, and what are its functions ?

20. An anatomical description of the Monitor (d¢vittatus) of the island of
Java.

21. The Society desires that the corpuscles of the blood in different orders of
reptiles should be described and delineated after new and original researches.

22. The density of the vapors of substances is one of their most important
physical characters ; it is therefore to be regretted that it has as yet only been
determined with respect to so few inorganic bodies. 'The method indicated by
M. Sainte-Claire-Deville for that determination seems calculated to extend our
knowledge upon this point. Hence the Society solicits the determination of
the density of the vapors of different substances in regard to which that fact has
remained undetermined till the present time.

23. Instruments and experimental methods having been sufficiently improved
of late to enable us to undertake with success experiments on the diffraction of
sound, the Society requests that those experiments be made, and that there be
deduced from them a determination of the velocity of sound.

24. Researches are desired on the modifications in the spectral lines of divers
substances, produced by different temperatures and densities.

25. An analytical catalogue (raisonné) is needed of the geographical distri-
bution of mollusks.

The ordinary prize for a satisfactory answer to each of these questions is a
gold medal of the value of 150 florins, and a further gratuity of 150 florins if
the answer is deemed worthy thereof. The answers, legibly written in Dutch,
French, English, Italian, Latin or German, (Roman letters,) and free of charge,
with billets in the manner usually adopted in like cases, must be addressed to
Professor E. H. Von BaunnavsEr, Perpetual Secretary of the Holland Society
of Sciences, at Harlem.

PRIZE QUESTIONL,. 409

IMPERIAL SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF CHERBOURG.
PROGRAMME OF COMPETITION FOR 1868.

The Society offers for competition the following question :

The varechs (sea-wrack, fucus) in the two-fold point of view of agricullure
and of industry.

Full latitude is given to the competitors to treat this question as they shall
think proper; yet it is thought that their attention should be more particularly
called to the following points :

1. What time is the most suitable for gathering the varechs fixed on rocks,
and best reconciles the requirements of reproduction with the wants and usages
of agriculture? Should we make two harvests in each year, or but a single
one? Ought the varech to be plucked or cut?

2. By what means is it practicable to conciliate to the greatest possible ex-
tent the interests of agriculturists and those of the manufacturers of iodine and
of alkaline salts ?

3. What are the most proper modes of application to augment the effects of
manuring with the varechs? Might not the employment of a mixture in suit-
able proportions of the residuum of the lixiviation of kelp with the common
varech be attended with good economical results? By what methods of pre-
vious stratification and maceration might we succeed in profitably uniting the
mineral matters contained in that residuum with the organic substances indis-
pensable for completing the elements of vegetable nutrition, and in obtaining the
maximum of useful effect ?

The answers to these different questions, and to all others which the competi-
tors may themselves propose, should be founded not on theoretical considerations,
but on new and solid experiments, devised by the authors of the memoirs, and
carefully described. The prize for competition is a gold medal of five hundred
francs. The Society may, moreover, award medals of silver to the authors of
memoirs which, without completely resolving the proposed questions, shall have
furnished, nevertheless, useful indications of a nature to merit that distinction.
The right is reserved of publishing in the memoirs of the Society, either in
whole or in part, the manuscripts which shall be presented.

The memoirs must be written in French, Latin, or English, and be addressed,
free of charge, before the first of July, 1868, to the archivist of the Society,
Dr. A. Le Jouis, rue de la Duchée, 29, at Cherbourg. Each manuscript will
be preceded by a motto or epigraph, repeated in a sealed billet which contains
the name and domicile of the author, as well as a declaration, signed by himself,
that the production is unpublished, and has not before been submitted to com-
petition. This billet will not be opened unless a prize shall have been awarded
to the work, or it be judged worthy of publication in the memoirs of the Society.
The manuscripts will remain the property of the Society.

CueRsbouRG, June 8, 1865.

MEMBERS OF THE BUREAU.

Secretary, L. FLEURY. Perpetual Archiviste, Dr. A. Le Jouts.
Treasurer, LEVIEUX. Vice-President, GEUFROY, Senior.

410 PRIZE QUESTIONS.

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF THE PHYSICAL-MATHEMATICAL CLASS OF
THE ROYAL PRUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FOR
THE YEARS 1866-7:

PUBLISHED AT THE PUBLIC SESSION UPON THE LEIBNITZ FESTIVAL, JULY 7, 1864.

I.
(From the Steiner Legacy. )

In one of the monthly reports of the Academy, for January, 1856, as well as
in an essay published in vol. LIIT of Crell’s Journal, Steiner communicated
a series of the fundamental properties of the surfaces of the third order, arriving
at the means for a purely geometrical theory of the same.

The Academy desires that this remarkable labor of the distinguished geometer
be carried out further, according to its, synthetic methods, and be perfected in
several essential points.

For this purpose it would be necessary, first, to give proofs, which are for
the most part merely indicated or even omitted for the principal propositions ;
but the investigation must be extended beyond the cases treated by Steiner to
those surfaces in which the elements serving for the geometrical construction
are in part imaginary. Beside this, the Academy would regard it as an import-
ant perfection of Steiner’s theory, although not absolutely indispensable, if a
complete characterizing of the different kinds of cones in space formed by the
intersection of two of the surfaces here alluded to were given.

Essays contending for the prize may be written in the German, Latin, or
French languages, and the time during which they can be received will expire
upon March 1, 1866. Every essay must be accompanied by a motto, which
must also be placed upon the outside of a sealed envelope containing the author’s
name.

The prize of six hundred thalers will be conferred at the public session of the
Leibnitz festival in the month of July, 1866.

1

The theory of the elliptic and Abel’s functions, which has already enabled
the solution of problems in nearly every branch of mathematics, and for which
former means for the analysis were insuflicient, is without doubt susceptible of
numerous additional applications, and, therefore, the Academy offers the follow-
ing prize questions :

“ For any important problem in algebra, arithmetic, integral calculus, geom-
etry, mechanics, and mathematical physics, which can be perfectly solved by
aid of the elliptic or Abel’s transcendentals.”

The essays may, at the will of the author, be written in the German, Latin,
or French languages, and the time of their reception expires upon the lst of
March, 1867. Every essay must be accompanied with a motto, which must
also be written upon the outside of a sealed envelope containing the author’s
name. 2

The prize of one hundred ducats will be conferred at the public session on

the Leibnitz festival in July, 1867.

PRIZE QUESTIONS. All

GEOLOGICAL PRIZE.

ANNOUNCED ON MAY 30, 1864, BY THE IMPERIAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AT VIENNA.

The great majority of the most accurately studied eruptive rocks, both in and
outside of Austria, belong either to the older palxozoic formations or to the later
tertiary and quite modern periods.

In the Austrian alps, however, still more in the Carpathian mountains, and
also partially in Bohemia, there are masses of rocks in great quantity and variety,
which break through the stratified rocks or stand in relation to the same, but
of which the period of eruption falls within the epoch of a middle age, begin-

. . . co)
ning with the dyas formation to that of the eocene.

To name only a few of these, we have the metaphyre of the ——
(Rothliegende) in Bohemia and the red sandstones of the Carpathians, which
belong probably to the same formation ; the red porphyry and metaphyre of the
trias of the southern Alps; the so-called augite-porphyry and amygdaloids of
the east Carpathians standing in connexion with the jurassic limestone; the
teschinite of the chalk and eocene formation of the Silesian Carpathians, &c.

Many of these rocks have been named heretofore generally and from mere
external analogies. An accurate mineralogical and chemical investigation of
the same, a comparison of the platonic rocks of the higher and younger periods,
constitutes a problem, the solution of which would fill a gap, in the true sense
of the word, in our knowledge, and would appear alone to be of vast importance
to science. ‘The Imperial Academy can with right expect this solution, because,
as far as is yet known, no other country in the world possesses eruptive rocks
of the period alluded to in equal quantity and abundance.

The mathematical-natural history class of the Imperial Academy of Sciences
has therefore determined to offer a prize for the answer to the following prob-
lem, viz:

“ An accurate mineralogical, and, as far as may be possible, chemical inves-
tigation of the largest number of eruptive rocks in Austria of the middle period,
from the dyas formation to that of the eocene, and the comparison of these with
the more accurately known older and younger eruptive rocks of Austria and of
other countries.”

The period for closing the reception of the prize essays has been fixed for
December 31, 1866; the announcement and reception of the prize of two hun-
dred royal imperial mint ducats will follow at the commemorative session of the
Academy on May 30, 1867.

The following paragraphs relating to prize essays, from the order of business
of the Imperial Academy, are published for the benefit of the contestants :

§ 56. All prize essays should be furnished without the name of the author,
but, as usual, with an accompanying motto and with a sealed envelope contain-
ing the author’s name in the inside and his motto upon the outside.

At the commemorative session of May 30, the president shall open the sealed
envelope inscribed with the motto of the successful essay, and shall announce
the name of the author. The other envelopes shall be burned unopened, but
the essays shall be preserved subject to the call of their authors, announcing
each his motto.

§ 57. The division of a prize between several contestants is prohibited.

§ 58. Every crowned prize essay remains the property of its composer.
Should he so desire, it will be published by the Academy.

§ 59. The members of the Academy shall not strive for this prize.

§ 60. Essays which have not received a prize may, if worthy, be published
by the Academy, with the consent of the author.

EXPLORATIONS.

SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO MEXICO.

A REPORT ADDRESSED TO THE EMPEROR BY THE MINISTER OF PUBLIC
INSTRUCTION.

TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

SrxTy-sIx years ago 40,000 men of the army of Italy and our most illustrious
chief landed at Alexandria. The young general was followed not only by the
bravest soldiers in the world, but by a whole colony of savants, who achieved,
after their own manner, the conquest of Egypt by tearing away the veil in
which its ancient civilization had, for fifteen centuries, been enveloped. By the
researches of the Institute of Cairo the archeological sciences were renovated
in Europe. Without the publication of the great work of the Description of
Egypt, Champollion would never have conceived the design nor possessed the
means of commencing the interpretation of the hieroglyphs which science had
pronounced an inexplicable enigma, and France would have wanted the honor
of having found the key to those inscriptions which have already explained so
many symbols and doctrines, and revealed so many ideas concerning the religion,
the history, and the chronology of that ancient world.

It was on the banks of the Nile that Geoffroy Saint Hilaire conceived the
first thought of his great system of anatomical philosophy; and if the levellings
effected by his colleagues on the Isthmus of Suez, under the fire of the Arabs,
were not exact, their idea of a communication between the two seas has not the
less maintained its popularity to the day when, thanks to another Frenchman,
it might become a reality.

To the conquests of abstract science were added those of art. In the draw-
ings which the expedition brought away our artists saw enlarged resources for
the expression of the beautiful placed at their disposal.

The labors of the Institute of Cairo were even attended with consequences
of practical utility. The study of the climate and of the geographical condi-
tions of the valley of the Nile led to the discovery of means for promoting the
salubrity of the country and securing to its inhabitants a better hygiene. At
this day the plague has almost disappeared, and, notwithstanding the frequency
and facility of commercial intercourse, this scourge no longer arrives on our
coasts to decimate our population, and, as in 1720, to snatch from Provence
alone 85,000 of its inhabitants. It is to the medical investigations of the In-
stitute of Egypt that we should refer the commencement of this great ameliora-
tion.

And while learned Europe was enriched with scientific facts, with ideas and
forms of art, which the great work on Egypt threw into general circulation, Egypt
itself, reanimated by the contact with our soldiers and savants, emerged from its
lethargy. Several of its youth were consigned to a member of the Institute to
be initiated in our European civilization; a number of our engineers were invited
to the work of Egyptian regeneration; and if there is found to-day on the

‘SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO MEXICO. 413

banks of the Nile an association which asserts its place among modern societies,
and plays an important part, through production and commerce, in the general
intergsts of the world, it is in great part because the hand of France was
stretched forth to rescue this people from their state of torpor.

Prepossessed by these memories, your Majesty has determined that what
was done on the banks of the Nile by him who was to become Napoleon I,
should be accomplished in Mexico under the auspices of Napoleon III. The
results obtained sixty years ago are the guarantee of the results in reserve for
the new expedition. Mexico, it is true, does not offer the historic interest pre-
sented by that land of Egypt, where Herodotus placed the origin of the religion,
the arts, and of a portion of the inhabitants of Greece. Nevertheless Mexico,
too, has many secrets to disclose to us: a peculiar civilization which science
should revive, races whose origin eludes us, unknown languages, mysterious
inscriptions, and imposing monuments. But if the expedition be contemplated
in relation to the natural and physical sciences, what comparison can be made
between the two countries? On the one hand, a long valley of scarcely 260
leagues, with a width at certain points of but a few hundred toises, where the
sky, the earth, and the waters are of an admirable but wearisome uniformity ;
on the other, a vast region bathed by two oceans, traversed by large rivers
and lofty mountains—which, situated near the equator, possesses every climate,
because it has all altitudes; where the redundant vegetation of the tropics
shelters innumerable tribes of animated creatures ; where, in fine, the internal
wealth corresponds to that of the surface, for the millions which, during three
centuries, Mexico has poured into the lap of Europe are but the first fruits of
the treasures which it yet has in store.

The Mexico of Montezuma comprised but about six degrees of latitude, from
the 15th to the 21st. Outside of its frontiers there remained, to the south,
Yucatan and the entire isthmus; to the north, all Sonora and the great valley
of the Rio del Norte. But the history of these regions, the races which people
them, is too closely associated with the history and the rads of Mexico to be
neglected by a scientific expedition. The field of exploration, then, extends
from the sources of the Rio del Norte and the river Colorado to the Gulf of
Darien, over about 32° of latitude.

It is true that a great number of documents relative to this wide tract have
been already collected by the scientific men of the country—by some of the
functionaries sent thither by France, and by travellers, who have followed in
the traces of the most illustrious of their number, William von Humboldt. But
information thus gained at points widely separated requires to be compared,
digested, and submitted to scientific verification. In view of the details and
rigor of method which science now exacts, Mexico offers, in regard to many
sciences, a field of culture almost untouched. We have, for example, numerous
charts of this region, but the best of them leave much to be desired. In the
provinces to the south and west of Mexico the course of the largest rivers is
traced in a very uncertain manner, and it is not necessary to diverge far from
the frequented routes to make the most unexpected discoveries. At a short
distance from Perote, on the highway between Vera Cruz and Mexico, the
maps indicated, four or five years since, a lagoon, where M. de Saussure encoun-
tered hills. ‘To the north the region of the Sierra Madre and the Sierra Verde,
to the south Guatemala, Honduras, and Darien, include vast tracts as little
known as the centre of Africa.

These researches, useful alike to commerce and to science, will promote, per-
haps, the solution of the problem propounded twenty years ago by Prince Louis
Napoleon for piercing the American isthmus with an interoceanic canal. The
Emperor might in this, as in so many other instances, witness the realization of
the hardy and prolific visions of the exile.

In regard to the geologic constitution of this part of the New World we have

414 EXPLORATIONS. +

glimpses rather than any general view; two studies, among others, are here to
be created or resumed—paleontology and the examination of voleanic phenomena,
which, in Mexico, present themselves in colossal proportions. ‘

What has been done by mining associations is worthy of praise, but what is
known as yet of the mineralogical wealth of Mexico is undoubtedly the smallest
part of that which exists. The sites thus far turned to profit are those for the
most part which hazard has presented. <A truly scientific exploration would
disclose to this branch of industry a future of unexpected prosperity.

A country of so bold and broken an outline, and submitted to the powerful
and varied action of extremes of climate as well as to that of the forces proceed-
ing from the interior of the earth, holds out large promise to the physics of the
globe and to meteorology.

Nor will botany be less fortunate. Those endlessly diversified formations,
those elevations where all climates present themselves, enable Mexico and
Central America to spread before the eyes of the traveller a magnificent and
multiform flora, such as is offered by no other region of the globe. The science
has here already made many acquisitions, but a full harvest is yet to be gath-
ered, and our gardens, our parks, our forests, and our fields will be enriched
with new plants for ornament and use.

In these regions where nature scatters life under all forms, the animal king-
dom is not less rich nor less curious than the vegetable. Agassiz thinks that
he has found living in the Gulf of Mexico certain antediluvian polyps which
occur imbedded in the soil of Florida, and the encrinites are extant only here:
a mysterious link between the world of primeval times and our own.

The almost new science of anthropology cannot fail to derive great light from
the calm study of the races buried in the grottoes of Central America, or from
those which still live on the plateau of Anahuac or in the neighboring regions.
The mixed breeds, resulting from the intercourse of the indigenous and foreign
races, will furnish suggestions for a study associated with questions of the highest
import, at once pH¥siological, moral, and social.

Mexico is still rich in promise for another science—comparative philology.
Though hardly of a man’s age, this science has already detected the origin of
races of men, reunited the broken ties of nations, and prepared the solution
of the great problem of the variety or unity of our species; a question which
seemed to possess no interest but for scientific curiosity, yet one which, for three
years, North America has been seeking to decide in the furious conflicts of a
more than civil war. The study of Mexican idioms was commenced, it is true,
long since, but there is room for pursuing it on a wider scale. ‘The ruins of
Palenque cover mysteries comparable, perhaps, to those which the expedition
of Egypt found on the banks of the Nile, and which, thanks to that expedition,
Champollion was finally enabled to penetrate. ‘

The Mexico of Montezuma has almost wholly disappeared; the expedition
will afford the means of its rediscovery. Perhaps our explorers will bring to
light some of those rare Mexican manuscripts or ywkatéques which have escaped
recurring devastations. They will certainly collect those oral traditions of
which modern criticism so well knows how to avail itself.

In 1855, M. de Saussure discovered, within a few leagues of Perote, an entire
city of which, before him, no one had any knowledge. An American traveller,
passing directly from the sea to Mexico, by a route traced by himself, encoun-
tered from eighteen to twenty considerable monuments, of which the memory
was lost. The Mexican solitudes have similar surprises in reserve for our
savants. It will be theirs to renovate this great and curious page of the world’s
annals, which centuries have effaced, and our generation, so arid of the noble
emotions of history, will see a wider horizon opened for its contemplation.

When our soldiers quit this country, leaving glorious memories behind them,
our savants will complete the conquest of it for science. There is no room to

SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO MEXICO. 415

doubt but that, by virtue of their labors, certain branches of our knowledge will
be stimulated and extended—others, perhaps, created, and that new facts will
produce new and fruitful ideas which shall give to our comprehensive studies a
salutary impulse.

In order to assure to the scientific expedition of Mexico every guarantee of
success, I have the honor to propose that your Majesty will be pleased to con-
stitute, by decree, a commission which shall hold its sessions at the department
of public instruction. Composed of men eminent in science and in the state, or
of savants who have already explored Central America, this commission will
give to travellers the necessary instructions, will follow the progress of the ex-
pedition, and will prepare for the scientific world the publication of a work
which will prove, I trust, a monument of the patronage which your Majesty
condescends so directly to accord to this noble enterprise.

I flatter myself that the public offices will cordially associate themselves with
the designs of the Emperor ; and, consequently, I have also the honor of praying
your Majesty to cause to be laid for examination before the council of state the
draught of a law for opening a credit of 200,000 franes in behalf of the ministry
of public instruction in order to defray the expenses of the expedition.

A JOURNEY TO THE YOUCAN, RUSSIAN AMERICA,

BY WwW. W. KIRBY.

T left home on the 2d of May in a canoe paddled by a couple of Indians be-
longing to my mission. We followed the ice down the noblé McKenzie, staying
awhile with Indians wherever we met them, and remained three or four days at
each of the forts along the route. On the 11th of June I left the zone in which
my life had hitherto been passed, and entered the less genial arctic one. Then,
however, it was pleasant enough. ‘The immense masses of ice piled on each
side of the river sufficiently cooled the atmosphere to make the travelling en-
joyable, while the sun shed upon us the comfort of light nearly the whole
twenty-four hours. And as we advanced further northward he did not leave us
at all. Frequently did I see him describe a complete circle in the heavens.

Betwen Point Separation and Peel’s river we met several parties of Esqui-
maux, all of whom, from their thievish propensities, gave us a great deal of
trouble, aad very glad were we to escape out of their hands without loss or in-
jury. They are a fine-looking race of people, and from their general habits and
appearance, I imagine them to be much more intelligent than the Indians. And
if proof were wanting I think we have it in a girl who was brought up from the
coast little more than three years ago, and who now speaks and reads the English
language with considerable accuracy. 'The men are tall, active, and remarkably
strong, many of them having a profusion of whiskers and beard. ‘The women
are rather short, but comparatively fair, and possess very regular and by no
means badly formed features. The females have a very singular practice of
periodically cutting the hair from the crown of their husband’s head, (leaving a
bare place like the tonsure of a Roman Catholic priest,) and fastening the spoil
to their own, wear it in bunches on each side of their face, and a third on ihe
top of their head, something in the manner of the Japanese who recently visited
the United States. This custom, as you will imagine, by no means improved
either their figure or appearance, and as they advance in life, the bundles must
become to them uncomfortably large. A very benevolent old lady was most
urgent for me to partake of a slice of blubber, but I need hardly say that a
sense of taste caused me firmly but respectfully to decline accepting her hos-
pitality. Both sexes are inveterate smokers. Their pipes they manufacture
themselves, and are made principally of copper; in shape, the bowl is very
like a reel used for cotton, and the hole through the centre of it is as large as
the aperture of the pipe for holding the tobacco. This they fill, and when
lighted will not allow a single whiff to escape, but in the most unsmoker-like
manner swallow it all, withholding respiration until the pipe is finished. The
effect of this upon their nervous system is extremely great, and often do they
fall on the ground completely exhausted, and for a few minutes tremble like an
aspen leaf. The heavy beards of the men, and the fair complexions of all, as-
tonished my Indians greatly, and in their surprise called them ‘Manooli Conde,”
like white people. They were all exceedingly well dressed in deer-skin clothing,
with the hair outside, which being new and nicely ornamented with white fur,
gave them a clean and very comfortable appearance. Their little Kyachs were
beautifully made, and all the men were well armed with deadly-looking knives,
spears, and arrows, all of their own manufacture. ‘The Indians are much afraid
of them, and so afraid of my safety were two different parties that I saw on my

JOURNEY TO THE YOUCAN, RUSSIAN AMERICA 417

way down that a man from each of them, who could speak a little Eskimos
volunteered to accompany me, without fee or reward, and invaluable did I find
their services. Poor fellows! they will never see this; but I cannot refrain from
paying them here my tribute of gratitude and thanks.

_At Peel’s river I met with a large number of Loucheux Indians, all of whom
received me most kindly, and listened attentively to the glad tidings of salva-
tion I brought unto them. As these are a part of the great family who reach
to the Youcan and beyond, I need not dwell upon theta here, as their habits
will be included in a general description that I shall give of the whole by-and-
by. I may, however, remark that from their longer association with ‘the whites
many of the darker traits that belong to their brethren on the Youcan apply,

‘if at all, in a much milder form to the Indians there and at Lapiene’s House.

I left my canoe and Indians, as well.as those who accomranied me, at the’
fort, and taking two others who knew the way, walked over the Rocky mount-
ains to Lapiene’s House. This part of the journey fatigued me exceedingly—not
so much from the distance (which was only from 75 to 100 miles) as from the
badness of the walking, intense heat of the sun, and myriads of the most
voracious mosquitos that I have met with in the country. The former, I think,
would justly defy competition. ‘There were several rivers to ford, which from
the melting snows and recent rains were just at their height. Fortunately they
were neither very deep nor wide, or my size and strength would have been
serious impediments to my getting over them.

At Lapiene’s House I was delighted to meet Mr. Jones, who was my com-
panion on travel from Red river to Fort Simpson. He had come up in charge
of the Youcan boat, and at once kindly granted me a passage down with him.
I had fortunately a bundle of Canadian newspapers in my carpet-bag, some of
them containing some speeches on educational subjects by his venerable grand-
father, the bishop of ‘Toronto. Five days of drifting and rowing down the
rapid current of the Porcupine river brought us to its confluence with the You-
can, on the banks of which, about three miles above the junction, the fort is
placed. My friend Mr. Lockhart was in charge, and all who know the kind-
ness of his heart need not to be told of the cordial reception that I met with
from him. Another hearty grasp was from the energetic naturalist Mr. R. Ken-

- nicott, who, under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, came into the

district with me, and passed the greater part of his first winter at Fort Simpson.
He delighted me with the assurance that he had met with a vast field, and that
his efforts had been crowned with much success, especially in the collection of
eggs, many rare and some hitherto unknown ones having been obtained by
him; so that the cause of science, in that department, will be greatly benefited
by his labors. Among many others I noticed the eggs and parent birds of the
American widgeon, the black duck, canvas-back duck, spirit duck, (Bucephala
abeola,) small black-head duck, (Fulzx affinis,) the waxwing, (Ampelis gar-
rulus,) the Kentucky warbler, the trumpeter swan, the duck-hawk, (Falco
anatum,) and two species of juncos. With the exception of the waxwing, how-
ever, there were few that have not been obtained in other parts of the district by
the persevering zeal of Mr. Ross, the gentleman in charge, and it, I have since
learned, nested numerously in the vicinity of my out-station at Bear lake.

On my arrival at the Youcan there were about 500 Indians present, all of whom
were astonished, but appeared glad, to see a missionary among them. They
are naturally a fierce, turbulent, and cruel race, approximating more nearly to the
Plain tribes than to the quiet Chipewyans of the McKenzie valley. They com- |
mence somewhere about the 65th degree of north latitude, and stretch westward
from the McKenzie to Behring’s straits. They were formerly very numerous, but
wars among themselves and with the Esquimaux have sadly diminished them.
They are, however, still a strong and powerful people. They are divided into
many petty tribes, each having its own chief, as the Ta-tlit-Kutchin. (Peel’s

2 <8

418 EXPLORATIONS.

River Indians,) Ta-Kiith-Kutchin, (Lapiene’s House Indians,) Kutch-a-Kutchin,
(Youcan Indians,) Touchon-ta-Kutchin, (Wooded Country Indians,) and many
others. But the general appearance, dress, customs, and habits of all are pretty
much the same, and all go under the general names of Kutchin (the people) and
Loucheux, (squinters.) The former is their own appellation, while the latter was
given to them by the whites. There is, however, another division among them
of a more interesting and important character than that of the tribes just men-
tioned. Irrespective of tribe, they are divided into three classes, termed, respect-
ively, Chit-sa, Nate-sa, and Tanges-at-sa—faintly representing the aristocracy,
the middle classes, and the poorer orders of civilized nations, the former being
the most wealthy and the latter the poorest. In one respect, however, they
greatly differ, it being the rule for a man not to marry in his own, but to take a’
wife from either of the other classes. A Chit-sa gentleman will marry a Tanges-
at-sa peasant without the least feeling infra dig. 'The offspring in every case
belong to the class of the mother. ‘This arrangement has had a most beneficial
effect in allaying the deadly feuds formerly so frequent among them. I wit-
nessed one this summer, but it was far from being of a disastrous nature. The
weapons used were neither the native bow nor imported gun, but the unruly
tongue, and even it was used in the least objectionable way. A chief, whose
tribe was in disgrace for a murder committed the summer before, met the chief
of the tribe to which the victim belonged, and in the presence of all commenced
a brilliant oration in favor of him and his people, while he feelingly deplored
his own and his people’s inferiority. At once, in the most gallant way, the
offended chief, in a speech equally warm, refuted the compliments so freely
offered, and returned them all, with interest, upon his antagonist. This lasted
for an hour or two, when the offender, by a skilful piece of tactics, confessed
himself so thoroughly beaten that he should never be able to open his lips again
in the presence of his generous conqueror. Harmony, of course, was the in-
evitable result.

The dress of all is pretty much the same. It consists of a tunic or shirt
reaching to the knees, and very much ornamented with beads, and Hyaqua
shells from the Columbia. The trousers and shoes are attached, and orna-
mented with beads and shells similar to the tunics. The dress of the women is
the same as that of the men, with the exception of the tunic being round in-
stead of pointed in front.

The beads above mentioned constitute the Indian’s wealth. They are strung
up in lengths, in yards and fathoms, and form a regular currency among
them, a fathom being the standard, and equivalent to the “made beaver” of
the company. Some tribes, especially the Kutch-a-Kutchin, are essentially
traders, and, instead of hunting themselves, they purchase their furs from dis-
tant tribes, among whom they regularly make excursions. Often the medicine-
men and chiefs have more beads than they can carry abroad with them, and
when this happens the company’s stores are converted into banking establish-
ments, where the deposits are invested for safe keeping. The women are much
fewer in number and live a much shorter time than the men. The latter arises
from their early marriages, harsh treatment they receive, and laborious work
they have daily to perform, while the former is caused, I fear, by the cruel acts
of infanticide which to female children have been so sadly prevalent among
them. Praiseworthy efforts have been made by the company’s officers to prevent
it, but the anguished and hardened mothers have replied that they did it to
prevent the child from experiencing the hardships they endured.

The men much reminded me of Plain tribes, with their. ‘birds and feathers,
nose jewels of tin, and necklaces of brass,” and plentiful supply of paint, which
was almost the first time I had seen it, used in the district. Instead of the nose
jewels being of “tin” they were composed of the Hyaqua shells which gave
the expression of the face a singular appearance. ‘The women did not use

JOURNEY TO THE YOUCAN, RUSSIAN AMERICA. 419

much paint, its absence was atoned for by tatooing, which appeared universal
among them. This singular custom seems to be one of the most widely diffused
practices of savage life; and was not unknown among the ancients, as it, or
something like it, seems to be forbidden to the Jews, “ye shall not print any
marks upon you,” Lev. xix, 28.

Polygamy, as in almost all other barbarous nations, is very prevalent among .
them, and is often the source of much domestic unhappiness among them. The
New Zealander multiplies his wives for show, but the object of the Kutchin is
to have a greater number of poor creatures whom he can use as beasts of bur-
den for hauling his wood, carrying his meat, and performing the drudgery
of his camp. They marry young, but no courtship precedes, nor does any
ceremony attend the union. All that is requisite is the sanction of the mother
of the girl, and often is it a matter of negotiation between her and the suitor
when the girl is in her childhood. The father has no voice in the matter what-
ever, nor any other of the girl’s relatives.

The tribes frequenting Peel’s river bury their dead on stages, the corpse
being securely enclosed in a rude coffin made of hollowed trees. About the
Youcan they were formerly burnt, the ashes collected, placed in a bag, and sus-
pended on the top of a painted pole. Nightly wailings follow for a time, when
the nearest relative makes a feast, invites his friends, and for a week or so the
dead dance is performed, and a funeral dirge sung, after which all grief for
the deceased is ended. I witnessed their dance at the fort, and have been told
by others that the dead song is full of wild and plainitive strains, far superior
to the music of any other tribes in the country.

Altars, or rites of religion, they had none, and before the traders went
there not even an idea of a God to be worshipped. Medicine men they had,
in whose powers they placed implicit faith; and whose aid they dearly pur-
chased in seasons of sickness or distress. ‘They were, emphatically, a people
‘without God in the world.” Knowing their prejudices, I commenced my
labors among them with much fear and trembling; but earnestly looking to
God for help and strength, and cannot doubt that both were granted. For,
before I left, the medicine men openly renounced their craft, polygamists freely
offered to give up their wives, murderers confessed their crimes, and mothers
told of deeds of infanticide that sickened one to hear. Then all earnestly
sought for pardon and grace. Oh! it was a goodly sight to see that vast num-
ber, on bended knees, worshipping the God of their salvation, and learning
daily to syllable the name of Jesus. Since my return I have read a glowing
picture of savage life, when left to its native woods and streams, and heartily
as I feel that I could be a friend of him who is, in truth, the friend of the
aborigines, yet sadly do I feel that between theory and fact there is often a
gaping discrepancy. ‘To draw a picture of savage life is one thing, to see “the
heathen in his darkness” is another. To speak of the Indian roaming through
his native woods, now skimming over the glassy lake, or floating down the silent
current, may be to show the poetry of his life; but there is the sterner chapter
of reality to place over against it. From that chapter the above remarks have
been gathered, they present the heathen as they are in themselves. For twenty
years have not yet elapsed since the white man planted his foot in the Youcan
valley, and since he has been there his influence has been to improve, and not
to contaminate. And if a testimony be valuable, more from the cause to which
it is given than from the source whence it proceeds, most heartily do I bear
mire to the humane and considerate treatment that the Indians of the Macken-
zie river district receive from the officers of the company. In many instances
that I could mention, the officer is more like the parent of a large family of
adult children than what his position represents. ‘The undoubted fact is, that
the whole tendency of heathenism is to brutalize and debase, while it remains
with civilization and the Gospel to elevate and to bless.

420 EXPLORATIONS.

Should you desire, I shall be happy next season to give you a few of the
Indian legends, as well as some account of the geology and fauna of my journey.
The flora, I do not sufficiently understand to say anything about, although,
from the great variety of plants that I saw, there must have been many inter-
esting to botanists. When at Red river, I read a paper by Mr. Barnston, on
the growth of the onion on the banks of the Porcupine river, and I have much
pleasure in being able to confirm his statements, that it is not the real onion,
but the chive that grows in such abundance there.

EXPLORATION IN UPPER CALIFORNIA IN 1860,

UNDER

THE -.AUSPICES OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
BY JOHN FEILNER, U. 5. A.

HAVING been requested by. the Smithsonian Institution to make collections of
birds, eggs, nests, &c., in the vicinity of Rhett and Klamath lakes, in the north-
ern part of this State, I applied to Captain John Adams, 1st United States
dragoons, commanding Fort Crook, California, for permission to visit the lakes,
and was granted a furlough of twenty days for this purpose, and was also fur-
nished with two pack animals to transport whatever collections I might secure.
Captain Adams not deeming it prudent for me to venture among the Indians
entirely alone, and wishing to render all assistance in his power for the prose-
cution of the object in view, allowed private Alexander Guise, company F, 1st
dragoons, to accompany me. The following is the itinerary of out journey :

May 13.—Left this post en route for Klamath lake, via Yreka; camped at
Bear creek ; distance, 20 miles.

May 14.—After re-arranging our traps, continued our way along the Yreka.
road, which we found exceedingly rough. Very few birds have at this early
part of the season made their appearance; for, although a spring month, every-
thing wears an aspect of winter, and travelling through a thickly timbcred.
country and over rocky roads, one has not the same chance for observation that
a clear and more level country would afford. Of the birds seen to-day I ob-
served Picus albolarvatus, Picus harrisii, Sitta aculeata, Sitta canadensis,
and Junco oregonus; but Spymapicus williamsonit, which heretofore I have
found abundant in this section of country, seemed to have wholly disappeared...
I did not see even one specimen. At the station-house on McCloud river I saw
for the first time, in large numbers, the species marked No. 511, of which I
collected several, but lost all; save one, when attacked by Indians. Camped at
Pilgrim’s camp, on northwest branch of McCloud river; distance 30 miles.
After having left the station-house about two or three miles behind, we suddenly
struck a desert of about six miles in extent, entirely of sand, and not a particle:
of snow to be seen. -This sudden change from deep snow toa barren sand
level, from cold to heat, was very surprising. The desert is between station-
house on McCloud river and Pilgrim’s camp on the same stream, and although:
a desert itself, has the appearance of an oasis in a snow desert.

May 15.—Left Pilgrim’s camp early, deeming it more advisable to travel for:
warmth than to remain shivering in camp. ‘he winter in this section of the
country being very severe, the springs are necessarily backward, and one will
often find snow on this road in June; in fact, “Shasta butte,” in our immediate:
vicinity, is covered with snow the whole year, presenting a very picturesque
appearance. The height of the mountain is very great, and it can be seen a
long distance off. To-day, saw large numbers of the Canada jay, (Perisoreus
canadensis.) I collected several, but could save one only, (No. 508.) Gym-
nokitta cyanocephala, not noticed by me at Fort Crook, California, for the
past year, were seen in numbers to-day. The country passed over was, with

422 EXPLORATION IN UPPER CALIFORNIA IN 1860.

very few exceptions, a barren waste. The soil does not admit of cultivation to
a sufficient extent to repay the laborer, with the exception of a few fertile spots
on the road, station-house being one; but the intense cold of a single winter
would induce almost any one to scek a more genial region. The mercury at
Pilgrim’s camp ranges from 19° to 25°, and snow falls to the depth of j//teen
vet. Distance travelled, 25 miles; camp, Sheep Rock.

May 16.—¥ rom Sheep Rock to Yreka the country presents a very unpre-
possessing appearance, and is almost entirely destitute of birds. The great shrike
( Coilyrio borealis) might be said to be numerous about the cedar bushes near
Sheep Rock. The only thing of interest I observed was the myriads of locusts
which swarm this section of country, destroying every green thing, even to the
foliage of the tallest trees. ‘he mountain tops appear alone to have escaped
this plague. Their encroachment on the gardens of Yreka compelled the owners
to find some means of protecting their produce, and I believe the following de-
scribed method has proved successful:* A narrow board, six inches wide, is
placed on the ground on its edge; another narrow board, having one edge
guarded by a strip of tin tacked on so as to project slightly beyond the edge,
is nailed on at right angles to the first board, forming, as it were, a rectangular
gutter. A succession of these gutters fastened together forms the “locust” or
‘‘cricket”’ fence. The smooth surface presented by the tin causes the cricket
to drop off, and after many fruitless efforts to “scale the fence,” they abandon
the project. I have spoken at length of the habits of the crickets in my ap-
pended ‘‘list-of birds, &c.’’ Arrived at Yreka early in the afternoon; dis-
tance, 20 miles. Yreka is one of the principal mining towns of California.
Having a letter of introduction to Judge Rosenborough, formerly Indian agent,
I presented myself to him, hoping that through his assistance I might procure
the services of some Indian guides. Judge R. endeavored to dissuade me from
continuing my tour, and even warned me against the probable hostility of the
Indians on Klamath river; but thinking that probably I might purchase peact
by distributing afew trinkets among the Indians, I provided myself with such arti-
cles as I thought they would fancy, and determined to make the attempt at all
events. Therefore, after remaining in Yreka one day, I was obliged to start for
the lakes without guides, and accompanied by Guise only.

May 18.—Started for Bogus mountains; travelled all day; camping at night
on Big Bogus creek; distance, 20 miles; collected largely of birds and nests ;
but as the species of the former differ from those already collected by me on
Fall river, their names are unknown. The country around here is well adapted
to agricultural purposes, and a slight labor would insure large produce.

May 19.—After striking the Klamath river, I travelled on it for eight miles
until I came to Hot Springs, where we encamped. I learned, afterwards, from
the Indians, that these springs are held in high estimation on account of their
medicinal properties. The springs are on both sides of the river, some of them
so close to it that a person can stand on the bank and put a hand in each at the
same time. It was within one mile of these springs that I first had intimation
of the hostility of the Indians, who, as soon as they saw us, made off to the
mountains. After having been in camp some few minutes, I saw a smoke at no
great distance from us, and upon approaching to ascertain ifs cause, found a
rancheria which had but recently been abandoned and set on fire. This act,
indicative of hostile intentions on the part of the Indians, caused me to change
my course of travel.

May 20.—Made a detour to northeast, crossing some very high and steep moun
tains; found the “dusky grouse’’ quite numerous, but could not find any nests.
About noon, arriving insight of Butte Valley lake, 1 metatribe of Indians, headed
by their chief, ‘‘ Ike.” We had a long talk together, the result of which was not

‘This method is more fully described with woodcuts in the Smithsonian report for 1860.

EXPLORATION IN UPPER CALIFORNIA IN 1860. 423

at all favorable to the further continuance of my trip. ‘Ike’ was exceedingly
inquisitive, and was as thorough in his surveillance as would have been a custom-
house officer; he declined affording me any assistance, and by pointing in the
direction whence we came, intimated that discretion on our side would be the
better part of valor. Accordingly, I directed my course towards the south side
of the valley, and came across some white cattle-herders. I endeavored to
find Butte creek, marked on Lieutenant Williamson’s map, but could not, though
‘ T should have been in its immediate vicinity. I was informed by the herders
and some friendly Lil-lac Indians that no creek or river leaves the valley, the
stream forming a lake and sinking. Distance to-day 20 miles.

The country passed over to-day was well watered and timbered, and indicated
fine agricultural capabilities. As the tide of emigration flows to this section of
the country, so will it rise in wealth and importance, and the only drawback at
present is the presence of the hostile Indians. During a conversation held with
the herders above mentioned, I learned that the Indians had recently killed sey-
eral head of cattle, and had manifested a desire to annoy the whites to such an
extent that they would be obliged to leave the country. The Indians are very
jealous, and consider every emigration of whites into their country as an encroach-
ment upon their rights.

May 21.—To-day I was quite successful in collecting specimens, and as the
fruit of my labor I can enumerate several varieties of water-fowl eggs, nests, &c.,
but I regret that our engagement with the Indians (spoken of hereafter) de-
prived me of most of them. The “brown curlew” (Numenius longirostris) was
very abundant here; but from the several collected, I have been able to preserve
but one nest, containing three eggs.. When found, all the nests contained four
eggs, and as nicely arranged as if placed by hand. Large numbers of “mud
hens,”’ or coots, (Fulica americana,) were seen; in fact, they were the most
abundant bird breeding; they lay from nine to eleven eggs; some of them I
saved; they build their nests of tules, and select the edge of the tule course,
and by breaking them down and building on them, their nests have the appear-
ance of floating baskets. The friendly Indians, who are living with the herders,
promised to assist me on the following day, and with their aid I anticipated great
success. :

May 22.—The three Indians who yesterday promised me their assistance
disappointed me, and assigned as a reason for refusing to accompany me, that
the Indians of Ike’s band having recently stolen cattle from the whites, they
feared a general fight. ‘The herders also said that the Indians had stolen sev-
eral head of cattle, and that Ike’s band were the perpetrators of the theft, and
asked me if I would accompany them in visiting the chief and talk with him;
if they could exact a promise of good faith on his part for the future, they were
willing to overlook the past, and also make him some presents of cattle. Ac-
cordingly we went to Ike’s camp, stated our object, and expressed a desire to
live at peace with him, and endeavored to impress upon him the idea that he
had acted wrongly in stealing cattle; that such acts would exasperate the white
men, who would come in great numbers and kill his whole tribe. Ike listened
very stoically, and replied that he had killed both men and cattle, and it was
his intention to do so again; he said the country belonged to the Indians; that
the whites had no business there, and that he would drive them off. Finding
that we could not come to pacific terms with Ike, we determined to return to the
herders’ camp, there to consult as to the course to be pursued, and I to prepare
for the continuance of my trip; but we had not gone more than three hundred
yards when the Indians fired on us; they numbered thirty or forty, we but four,
including one friendly Indian; we were obliged, therefore, to seek shelter in the
timber; but so hotly did they pursue us that we had but time to make good our
retreat to a deserted cabin some six miles distant, which we barricaded as best
we could, and made “loop holes,” through which to discharge our pieces. Thus

AQA EXPLORATION IN UPPER CALIFORNIA IN 1860.

fortified, we could have withstood the assault of quite a large force; but one of
our party, a young married man, had a wife in a cabin some two miles distant,
and as he was apprehensive of her safety, he determined to go to her, which he
succeeded in doing, escaping the vigilance of the Indians. Our cabin was at-*
tacked several times, but we beat off our assailants and took advantage of the
cover of night to make good our retreat to the cabin of the married man, where
I found my companion Guise, who had preceded me.

May 23.—To-day the three friendly Indians left us, but were forced to
return, as they were attacked by Ike’s band. A re-enforcement of three white
men having arrived, we determined to leave the cabin and give the Indians
battle, which we did, and succeeded in driving them to the mountains, with a
loss on their part of their chief and several warriors. We captured some cightcen
horses, two fine rifles, saddles, &c. Our party escaped unharmed, which was
somewhat remarkable, as the Indians largely outnumbered us, and were good
marksmen.

Learning from one of the men who just joined us that nearly all the troops
at Fort Crook had been ordered to Carson valley, on account of Indian out-
breaks, I was desirous of reaching home as soon as possible; and as soon as I
could pack what few specimens the Indians had not destroyed, and make some
necessary preparation for the road, I started, and arrived at-Fort Crook, Cali-
fornia, on the 27th instant. My collections were subsequently forwarded to the
Smithsonian Institution.

From observation and information received from the Indians, I am convinced
that a very interesting collection of nests and eggs of water-birds could be made
from the Rhett and Klamath lakes, May and June being the most favorable
months for collecting. May, and first week or so of June, for water-fowls;
latter part of June for land-birds. Having visited the lakes at too early a season
for obtaining nests and eggs of the mountain, or land-birds, I was able to observe
very little as to their manner of constructing their nests. On the Klamath river
I saw immense numbers of long-winged swallows (the name unknown) building
on the sides of rocky cliffs. Clark’s crow and wild pigeons were also engaged’
in building nests; both of them are to be found in large numbers about that part
of the country; also, plover, snipe, and divers, but no nests could be found; yet
I am told they will build about the middle of June.

NOTES UPON SOME ANIMALS OBSERVED DURING THE EXCURSION:
MAMMALS.

Little prairie dog. —I saw this little animal for the first time about four miles
north of Fort Tejon, California, on a small plain, and met with it again in Butte
Creek valley, on the south side, where they were quite numerous. It has the same
habits as the prairie dog found on the great western plains. 'The latter lives in
separate holes; the former associate together, several living in the same hole.
When approached, they give a signal, which’can hardly be called a bark, but a
single “ zeck ;” this signal is repeated by all, and then a general scampering for
holes takes place; arriving at which, and out of harm’s way, they sit on their
haunches, like a squirrel, and look about to reassure themselves of their perfect
safety, all the time continuing their “‘zeck.” Should they suspect danger, they
dart quickly into their holes, and there remain for about ten minutes, until allis
quiet, when, cautiously venturing out, they resume their gambols,

Moles.—Of this family I had two kinds, and, in fact, the finest I eyer saw;
one caught on Bogus creek, with glistening silver-gray fur, the other on Klamath
river, with black fur and velvet-like appearance. They were of the same size
as the common mole. Both of them I caught towards evening, when they
were digging in the ground. These two moles and five prairie dogs I lost in
the fight with the Indians.

EXPLORATION IN UPPER CALIFORNIA IN .1860. 425

BIRDS.

- Picus albolarvatus, (white-headed woodpecker.)—This bird is abundant in
the high timber between Fort Crook, California, and Shasta Butte mountain.
I saw it very seldom about inhabited places. It hunts, like all woodpeckers,
in the bark of trees for insects, and generally in pairs, by commencing almost
on the foot of the tree, moving in spiral circles up on the trunk, keeping from
time to time a shrilling note to tell its companions its whereabouts. Its flight
is an up-and-down movement, like that of most woodpeckers. I never saw it
in pursuit of flies or insects in the air, like so many of its tribe.

Prcus harrisiz, (Harris’s woodpecker.)—This species, in its habits, is closely
allied to the first mentioned, except in not avoiding inhabited places, as I have
often seen it in search of food on the pillar of my porch and adjoining fence.
It wil frequently be seen moving downwards on a tree, keeping the body in
an upright position and moving sideways and downwards—the head always
up, never down, in these movemeats. Its notes are similar to, but sharper than,
those of Picus albolarvatus, which it also resembles in flight. It seldom gives a
note while engaged in search after insects, but generally, when leaving a tree, it
repeats it untilit has alightedon another place. It inhabits this country during the
whole year, and cares very little about bad weather. I have seen it in rainy and
snowy days, and late in the evening, busily engaged in the destruction of worms
and insects.

. Collyrio borealis, (great shrike.)—This bird is generally to be seen on the
borders of timber, about brush, where it will always select the highest dry
branch. Very few are to be seen about Fort Crook, California, but in Shasta
valley, about the cedar brush, near Sheep Rock, I found it quite abundant,
and pugnacious as usual—at war with the larger birds to keep them away from
its haunts, and the smaller ones to kill them for food. Birds and grasshoppers
are its prey; of both killing more than it can consume, and fastening the “ sur-
plus’’ to a thorn or brush, there leaving it to decay. Judging from the num-
ber of crickets I saw transfixed to thorns, the sanguinary habits of this bird
should be commended rather than condemned, as they prove useful agents in
clearing the country of one of its greatest plagues.

Certhia Mexicana, (Mexican creeper.)—This bird is very abundant in spring
and fall about Fort Crook. I found it almost everywhere, and cannot say
whether it prefers the vicinity of pine or of oak trees. Busy in its solitary
movements, it would be seldom observed but for the frequent utterance of its
lonely three notes, the first sharper than the two following. Its color corre-
sponds very much with that of the bark of the trees. I always saw this bird
moving upwards, never head downwards, and going in spiral circles or straight
lines up a tree; instead of a kind of jumping, like woodpeckers, their movement
on a tree is a kind of running. The approach of a man will not drive them off.
I have often attempted to catch them with my hand. If accidentally seen by
them, or if a shot be fired close by, it will often stop on the same spot for some
time without giving a sign of life; at other times it will turn on the trunk of a
tree on the same side, close to the intruder; but once started, its flight is quick.
It is generally found in company with the titmouse and nuthatches.

Sitta aculeata, (western nuthatch.)—This bird inhabits this part of country
during the whole year, but is not so common or abundant as might be expected.
I often travelled in the forest for whole days without observing one. They
generally move in pairs, and will be noticed from a long distance by their
singular “quak, quak.” It is amusing to see this little bird, so full of life
and activity, moving upwards or downwards or sideways, on top or on the
lower side of a limb; in fact, taking every imaginable position to secure ants
and insects in or upon the scaly bark of trees.

426 EXPLORATION IN UPPER CALIFORNIA IN 1860.

Sitta canadensis, (red-bellied nuthatch.)—This bird resembles in its habits
the Sttta aculeata, always moving up or down in spiral circles on the trunk of
a tree, upon or on the lower side of a limb, in search of ants, insects, &c., fre-
quently repeating its note “quank,” a good deal sharper than that of Sitta
aculeata, and keeping mostly in the dark, distant forest. I often saw it on the
point of a dead tree flapping the wings by turning in every direction and
making a whistling noise. I found this bird more cunning than the preceding
species; their quick movements and great care to avoid the hunter’s sight makes
it often troublesome to shoot one. It inhabits this part of country during the
whole year.

Sitta pygmea, (the pygmy nuthatch.)—(Nos. 5, 22, 33, 34, 102, 199, 200,
of my collection forwarded.) This bird is very abundant in this section of
country, and in color and habits almost like Sitta canadensis. When I first
observed it, I supposed it to be a young bird of the species just mentioned, but
by closer observation I soon found it to be distinct. More than one pair of
Sitta canadensis are seldom found together, whereas this species travels in
flocks numbering sometimes twenty and more, accompanied by titmice, Certhia
mexicana, Sitta canadensis, and Sitta aculeata, and instead of the note * quank
quank,” it has a chattering whistle. It usually searches for its food only on
branches and limbs; se/dom will it be seen moving on the trunk of a tree.
The pine nuts are very closely searched for their seeds; when found, it alights
on a limb, where, holding it with one foot, it hammers with the bill until it has
broken it in such parts as to enable it to eat its seed. If it should happen to
‘ one to drop such a seed, two or three will be seen diving after and catching it
before it can reach the ground; another place will be found, and the hammer-
ing commences afresh. ‘The scene presented by observing a party of these
little birds all in a bustle and activity, engaged in breaking pine nuts, and to hear
their chattering and hammering, is very interesting, and reminds one of an
immense machine shop, where all the mechanics are busily engaged at the
various divisions of their craft.

This bird is not so much afraid of the approach of a man as Sitta Canadensis,
and I have seen it almost every day on the trees about the post ; but at breeding
season—J une, July—it removes to the thick forest.

Pipilio chlorura, (Blanding’s finch.)—This bird generally inhabits mountains
barren of trees, and only covered with chaparral, always keeping close to the
sheltered thickets, where it searches among the dead leaves, &c., for its food.
About Shasta butte, (northeast side,) they might be called abundant, but I
never saw more than one pair together. Upon alighting on the top branches of
a bush it utters a short, sweet, and lively song; if alarmed when so engaged, it
dives into the brush and disappears from sight, and is then very ditlicult to
shoot.

Junco oregonus, (Oregon snow-bird.)—I found this bird to be very abundant
throughout the whole of California. On my route to Rhett lake, &c., I met
with large flocks among the brush or underwood, searching on the ground
among the dead leaves for their food, uttering a chirping noise. When alarmed
they quickly take to the thickets or trees; but if no further danger is appre-
hended they come out again and continue their search. When undisturbed
they are very familiar, sometimes coming almost close enough to the observer
to be touched with the hand.

Xanthocephalus icterocephalus, (yellow-headed blackbird.) —This bird arrives
early in spring in this part of the country, where it remains until the breeding
season, in June; then it removes further north, where it selects the margins of
the lakes or swampy valleys covered with tules, in which it builds its nest.
This is placed about six inches above the water, and is formed like a basket,
by twisting dry or swamp grass around several pieces of tule until it has formed
anest. It generally lays four eggs. While the female is setting, the male,

EXPLORATION IN UPPER CALIFORNIA IN 1860. 427

articularly in the morning and evening, does his best to please his mate with
fis song, which much resembles the creaking of a gate in want of oil. Should
a hawk approach their breeding place, the alarm is given and hundreds will be
secn fluttering about the intruder, less with intention to fight than to annoy him
with their noise, which they continue until he has left.

Several nests sent on by me are of another species of blackbirds, which breed
on the ground in little brushes or bunch-grass, but I am not able to give their
names.

Picicorvus columbianus, (Clark’s crow.)—This species I first observed about
Pitt river, and on Stoneman’s ridge, in very small numbers, but on the moun-
tains between Klamath river and Butte Creek valley I met with them in
abundance, flying from tree-top to tree-top, like a jay, emitting from time to
time a note or ery resembling very much that of a crow, and hammering on
the bark of trees and on pine nuts, upon which it very probably feeds. It isa
very shy bird and difficult to secure. On opening some of them, towards the
end of May, I found quite large eggs formed in the female; but I never saw a
nest.

Cyanura stelleri, (Steller’s jay.)—This jay , the most cunning of its tribe, I
met with everywhere in the timber or brush along rivers or creeks. On the
approach of any intruder it utters a vehement outcry, jumping from limb to
limb, and from one tree to the next, until out of sight. In addition to this
single note, this bird has the faculty of mimicking other species with great
exactness. Jays, in general, are active, lively birds, but this species is superior
to all others in California, feeding indifferently on the ground or on trees.
During the summer season it keeps constantly in the forest, but heavy falls
of snow compel it to seek food and shelter about the settlements, and then it is
easily caught in traps. When caged it soon becomes tamed, and eats freely of
meat in preference to a vegetable diet.

Gymnokitta cyanocephala, (Maximilian’s jay.)—The first time I saw this bird
was at Fort Tejon, California. They generally fly in flocks, keeping on or
along the mountains, and, when so moving, their notes, which are almost pleasing,
are frequently given forth so as to guide the stragglers; but when in search of
food they are perfectly quiet, and the start for a new flight is announced by
commencing their notes again. 'Vhey generally fly very high, and feed mostly
on cedar-berries, but also search on the ground for food. It is difficult to ap-
proach and shoot them wherever they are, as they are always on the lookout;
in fact, all that I killed were obtained by secreting myself under a tree, &c.,
on a place where I had previously seen some pass, those in the rear always
following in the same direction, guided by the notes of the party in advance.

One day I observed a flock drinking. 'The whole of them first alighted on a
tree near the creek, and finding all quiet, about four of them took to the ground
and satisfied their thirst. When these were done they returned to the tree; then
all the others followed their example. By this arrangement some were on guard
all the time. No sound or note was uttered until all had done, then the flight
and noise recommenced. In the winter of 1858 I caught several of them; in fact
two came of their own accord into my room and made themselves quite at home,
which astonished me very much, because I had found this bird to be very wild.
The intense cold, however, and the covering up of their food by the snow,
compelled them to take refuge about our quarters until the snow had gone from
most of the country.

Perisoreus canadensis, (Canada jay.)—This bird I first saw in 1859, in small
numbers, when on an Indian scout, about Lossen’s butte, hovering noiselessly
about the road, catching flies by darting from one tree or bush to another.
Their flight is light and easy. About Shasta butte (north and east side) I
found them in large numbers, up to twenty together, noiselessly and busily
engaged, and searching for insects on the ground. Here I shot and preserved

428 EXPLORATION IN UPPER CALIFORNIA IN 1860.

several, but could only save one specimen. ‘They appear to prefer the snowy
region, well suited to their long and downy feathers, and | never met any else-
where. Some of the jay tribe known to me I saw engaged in their habit of
catching insects in the air. They differ from any others of their tribe that I
ever met with.

No. 308 of my collection, (not identified.)—The first time I observed this
bird was at the station-house on. McCloud’s river, where it was in large num-
bers. At first sight I thought they were cross-bills, owing to their manner and
whistling note, but by closer observation found the difference in size and color.
The whistling noise of so large a party can be heard a considerable distance off.
Their flight is swift, and when flying their wings make a surprising noise. I
sat under a willow bush in Butte valley engaged in cleaning eggs, when I sud-
denly heard a noise in the air as if several hawks were diving at their prey, and
before I had a chance of leaving my place to see where the noise came from,
all the willows were covered with these birds, whistling and jumping in a very
lively and active manner, and feeding on the willow buds. I had previously
obtained two specimens only of this species, (shot at the station-house on Mc-
Cloud’s river,) and here having so fine a chance for more, killed seven specimens
at one shot. All the others, with their usual noise, took flight to the mountains.
On opening the females I found quite large eggs already formed.

Numenius longirostris, (long-billed or brown curlew.)—This bird is seen at
Fort Crook during the spring, but only while migrating north; but in Butte
valley, particularly the western, portion of it, which is swampy, they appeared
to be numerous, eggs and nests being abundant. The nests are built of dry
grass, placed in a hollow previously made in the dry ground. The nests usually
contain four eggs, nicely arranged, with the pointed end towards the centre.
This bird makes a singular noise, something between the cooing of a dove and
the whistle of a quail. When driven from the nest by the hunting of the dog
it displays great sagacity by leading the dog a circuitous path from the nest for
some distance and then suddenly flying off. At first it hops or flutters along
like a young bird, and just when the dog is about to pounce upon it, off it flies,
uttering its note, cooi, cooi, sounding like a contraction of go away.

Fulica americana, (raud-hen, or coot.)\—This bird, common throughout this
State, is particulary so in Butte lake, where there is no difficulty in procuring
immense quantities of eggs and nests. I have myself seen a canoe-load of eggs
collected in less than an hour’s time. ‘The nest of the bird is built on the water,
and, as its construction is somewhat novel, I will endeavor to deseribe it at
length. The tules bordering the waters are bent down, one towards another, so
as to form a base or foundation; then other tules are interwoven, adding strength
to the structure, and the whole is finished off by an interlacing of the same
material. The whole, when finished, has the appearance of an inverted cone.
The nests generally contain from nine to eleven eggs, and present the appear-
ance of a floating basket.

Ducks —1 never paid much attention to the ducks, owing to the vast number
found over the whole country. During my trip to the lakes many opportunities
presented themselves for becoming acquainted with their manners, habits of 1
breeding, &c., but I was prevented from availing myself of them on account
of the Indian difficulty spoken of in my letter. The most favorable season for
collecting eggs and nests is the end of May and first of June. Ducks gener-
ally select high grass, or little brush, on the skirt of water, lakes, rivers, &e.

‘The nest will be easily found after detecting the trail leading from the water.
The duck never alights near the nest, but at some distance from it, in order to
avoid notice; after alighting in the water it swims to a spot near the nest, and
then, walking through the grass always from the same point, makes the trail

EXPLORATION IN UPPER CALIFORNIA IN 1860. 429

spoken of. Several eggs and nests have already been forwarded, but 1 am un-
able to class them, as the bird was not seen on the nest.*

Humming-birds—This family is well represented about Yreka and vicinity.
T found several nests, in all of which the eggs contained embryos. The nests
I had were of three kinds: those found on willow bushes (Aéthis anna, were
lined with spider webs, those on oak trees (Callothorax calliope) with small
scales of bark, and some found about Yreka on small bushes were coated on’the
outside with a combination of small leaves and scales of bark, bound together with
spider webs., Of birds I only obtained two. The head and neck of one were
of a very brilliant fire-color, ( Atthis anna,) the other resembling the Callothorax
calliope, but with a longer bill; this latter one was abundant about the willow
brush at Butte Creek valley. Both nests and birds I lost in the difficulty with
the Indians.

INSECTS.

Grasshoppers —These insects were first seen by me in Pitt River valley
during the summer of 1859, and in such number as actually to cover the ground.
They were confined to the west side of the river, which divides the valley, none
being seen on the opposite side save a few, which, having fallen into the stream,
were carried over. So numerous were they that vegetation was entirely destroyed
throughout the valley on the west side of Pitt and Fall rivers.

The eggs are laid in July and August. The insect deposits the eggs by

making perpendicular and oblique holes in the ground, to the depth of an inch,
by means of its tail, which is shaped like a bayonet, and is hollow. The eggs
are passed from the ovary into this tail, and are dropped one by one into the
holes. The localities selected for making these nests, or holes, is generally on
ground slightly undulating, the nature of the soil making little difference; the
nests are generally made on the south side of the hillock or knoll. Some six
eggs are laid in each nest. The eggs resemble, in form, pieces of vermicelli of
one-fourth of an inch in length, and are of a milky-white color. After making
some three or four nests, or holes, in the manner described, the insect dies, sel-
dom living more than twelve hours after the last deposit. It appears to have
no particular food, but feeds upon all kinds of vegetation; it will eat the dead
and crippled of its own kind, but I never observed them destroy one another.
When caught in the hand they bite, and emit a very disagreeable, dirty, dark-
green fluid from the mouth, It is remarkably tenacious of life; I cut the head
off one, and could distinctly see signs of animation some twelve hours after.
There is but little difference in size between the sexes. Immediately before
uniting sexually, the insect without the tail (which I presume to be the male)
utters a shrill, whistling sound, as if to call his mate. The sexual act lasts
about one or two minutes, and the peculiarity I observed at this union was, that
the one which I presume to be the female was over the male, instead of the
reverse. After the act a small bag—evidently the ovary—is attached to the
body of the female close to the tail; this is extracted from the other without
the tail; after a while the bag disappears. The time which elapses betweén the
sexual act and the deposit of the eggs I am unable to state, but after the eggs
are deposited it is my belief that they remain until the following spring before
being hatched. Their migratory flight extends but a few miles. When moving,
they start in the morning, and, from their precision of movement, they appear
like a vast army on parade. The course once marked out, they never deviate
from it on account of any obstacle, but move straight forward over houses and
all else. Clear and warm days are chosen for travel, but the too scorching rays
of the sun will cause them to seek shelter, as will also inclement weather; the
cover usually selected is bunch-grass or low brushwood, &c. ?

* Those identified belong to the red-breasted teal, ( Querquedula cyanoptera.)—S. F. B.

430 EXPLORATION IN UPPER CALIFORNIA IN 1860.

In changing the skin the insect fastens itself on a tree or other object, head
downward, and after much exertion crawls out, head foremost, leaving, to all
appearance, its very counterpart behind; they now present themselves in a suit
of light green, in exchange for the dark brown. ‘The only effectual remedy
against the ravage of this insect is the “cricket-fence,” and this structure,
simple as it is, has proved the only barrier.

The crickets were seen in numbers in the vicinity of Yreka, and as far on my
route as Bogus mountain. Thus it will appear that they are not a universal’
plague in this section of country, but visit certain localities only. From what
I could learn from the Indians, the cricket makes its appearance every three
years, and I was also informed by the Indians that Shasta valley is known as
“Cricket valley ;” hence it would seem that Shasta valley is their range.

[The intrepid explorer whose notes we have here published, and to whom the
Smithsonian Institution is indebted for a large number of valuable specimens of
natural history, fell a victim to the treachery of the Indians. The details of
his fate are given in the following report of General Sully, on whose staff he
served as engineer :

“On the 28th June, 1864, we reached the Little Shyenne. Captain Feilner,
1st United States cavalry, with two detailed men, proceeded ahead of the
column to the creek of the Little Shyenne, and reached it at the same time a
party of my friendly Indians and half-breeds did, but about half a mile below
where they were, and hidden from their view. The column had not yet arrived,
and as it had been raining hard the night before there was no dust visible. A
small war party of Minnesota Sioux were camping in a thick cluster of brush
and trees where the captain dismounted, and while he was in the act of getting
some water, three Indians fired about six yards from him. Two of the shots
took effect, and the captain died in great agony about two hours afterwards. I
am thus deprived of my engineer officer, and the country of the services of one
of its most valuable and efficient officers. He had for many years served in
the Ist United States cavalry—formerly 1st dragoons—as a non-commissioned
officer, had been in a great many battles, and it is sad that he should lose his
life in this way. It was all owing to his enthusiastic desire to collect as many
specimens as possible for the Smithsonian Institution. I had cautioned him
several times about the risk he ran in going so far from the command, and on
the night previous to the day of his death I sent for him to my tent to talk to
him on the subject, and I offered him a party of my scouts to protect him, as L
was desirous that he should do all he could to forward the scientific researches
that he was sent here to attend to; he promised me to accept them, but did not
do go.” J. H.]

JOURNAL

OF AN

EXPLORATION OF WESTERN MISSOURI IN 1854,

UNDER

THE AUSPICES OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

BY P. R. HOY, M. D.

April 4, 1854.—Left Racine, Wisconsin, on the steamer Traveller. The day
was fine, with a gentle breeze from the north. As the boat glided on, large
numbers of herring gulls, Larus argentatus, followed in her wake, picking up,
with clamorous cries, whatever would serve their gluttonous appetites. I no-
ticed one ring-billed gull, Larus zonorhynchus, a lesser, more active, and grace-
ful species. Saw a scoter duck, Fuligula americana ; this marine species is
occasionally met on Lake Michigan during winter and early spring.

5th.—Stayed in Chicago last night. In the forenoon we had a pleasant ride
on the Galena railroad to Rockford, on Rock river. The train passed close by a
flock of wild geese, which appeared more surprised than frightened, arranged
soldier-like in a long line. .They silently gazed with upstretched necks, look-
ing as if they would demand “ What next?’ From Rockford we went, in the
afternoon, by private conveyance, to the residence of Hon. 8. Ruggles, near
Grand de Tour.

7th.—Rigged out our “traps” and went on a fishing excursion to Pine
creek, a small rocky mill-stream that empties its waters into Rock river.
Caught a number of fish, some of which were new to me; captured a garter
snake, Hutenia sirtalis. My son met with a hog-nose snake, Heterodon pla-
tyrhinos, but did not succeed in capturing it; the harmless serpent succeeded,
by hisses and threatening attitudes, in intimidating the boy.

8th.—Went on Rock river to-day; caught several species of fish and a num-
ber of batrachians; nothing, however, new. The Hylodes gryllus is an
abundant species here, keeping up almost a continual clicking rattle, which may
be readily imitated by striking together two small pebbles, commencing slowly
and increasing to a rapid chatter. I amused myself by “ starting the tune,” in
which these diminutive castanet performers did not fail to join right merrily.
Shot a coot, ( Fulica,) a marbled godwit, Limosa fedoa, and several- field spar-
rows, Spizella pusilla. Saw large numbers of geese and ducks. My son col-
lected a fine lot of shells; some of the unios were most beautiful and perfect.

9th.—Shot many ducks, a swamp sparrow, and a grass finch. I saw a large
number—I should judge not less than a hundred—painted tortoises, Emys picta,
dead on the margin of a mill-pond, where they had been left by the melting of
ice and frozen mud which had been dislodged and driven on shore by the spring
freshet. A part of the pond was shallow and had frozen during the past unu-
sually severe winter to the bottom, including a considerable stratum of mud in
which the tortoises had crept to hibernate. Can any reptile be revivified after
being thoroughly frozen? Itis well known that fish will survive freezing, but

432 EXPLORATION OF WESTERN MISSOURI IN 1354.

.

judging from several experiments made on serpents, I am led to consider rep-
tiles too highly organized to recover after being completely congealed. In no
single instance have I succeeded in restoring snakes to life that had been per-
fectly frozen. Under these putrefying tortoises I found numbers of beetles,
Oiccoptoma marginata. Saw, to day, the first Sylvicola coronata.

11th—Had a pleasant drive of thirty miles over a most beautiful prairie
country to the “Junction,” in La Salle county. Saw geese, ducks, sand-hill
cranes, and golden plover in abundance.

12th.—Left the Junction at half past three in the morning, and in fourteen
hours we were in St. Louis, distance 217 miles. At the Junction there was
but little evidence of spring, vegetation having scarcely started, but, as we ap-
proached Springfield, the influence of a more southern climate was strikingly
apparent, for the red-bud—Cerczs canadensis—and peach tree were m blossom ;
and at St. Louis the pears, cherries, and plums are in full bloom. Such a
change on the now smiling face of nature, since moruing, is more like magic
than reality. I noticed in a barber-shop window a dlack-bellied fox squirrel,
just such as we find in the vicinity of Racine; on inquiring I learned that it
had been obtained up the Wisconsin river.

13th.—Left St. Louis in the evening on the packet Honduras.

14th —Making four miles an hour, including detentions on sand-bars. I saw
this morning a number of cormorants; they must seldom be met any great dis-
tance from the mouth of the Missouri river, for we saw none above this. Saw
a duck hawk fly to her eyrie in the face of an inaccessible cliff with a duck in
her claws on which to feast her young.

15th.—We find ourselves, this morning, only ninety miles from St. Louis.
Turkey vultures are nesting in the cliffs all along the river. The crows follow
the steamboats for the purpose of picking up whatever is acceptable to their
omnivorous craws, just like the gulls on the lakes. No gulls on the Missouri
river.

16th.—Arrived at the residence of E. Elliott, esq., on the river, ten miles
below Booneville, in Cooper county, where we propose spending a week.
_ 17th—Made a preliminary excursion to-day. ‘The surface of the country
here is much broken; soil on the hills good for wheat and most other small
grain; corn and hemp raised principally on the river bottom. ‘The timber
growing on the hills is composed of various species of oak and hickory inter-
spersed with sassafras of an unusually large growth; on the dottom lands, of
cottonwood, sycamore, maple, elm, hackberry,( Ce/tzs,) honey-locust,( Gledztschia,)
coffee-bean, (Gymnocladus;) on the hill-sedes, of mulberry and redbud matted
together and overrun with grapevines. I was much surprised to find such fine
old fruit orchards as we saw here. ‘The trees are remarkably vigorous and
healthy, free from the attacks of insects. One pear tree, 35 years old, on the
“Elliot farm,” produced the last season 45 bushels of excellent fruit. Peaches
seldom or never fail to yield an abundant crop. Apples are now plenty at 25
cents per bushel, delivered; and better flavored, fairer, and more perfect fruit I
never saw at this season of the year. Grapes do well with but little cultiva-
tion. All things considered, the hilly country bordering on the Missouri is
one of the best fruzt regions to be found anywhere. But few migratory birds
have yet arrived, while vegetation is as forward as it is in Wisconsin on the
15th of May, but the crested tits and cardinal birds by their merry whistle do
what they can to compensate for the deficiency of singing birds. Shot several
squirrels ; the gray squirrel here is no doubt distinct from the Wisconsin spe-
cies ; the fox squirrel found here appears different likewise. ‘The want of un-
varying characteristics by which closely allied species of Sczwrzd@ may be dis-
tinguished is to be lamented; for after all that has been done by Bachman and
others in this department, it must be admitted that there is yet much confusion
and uncertainty ; we look with hope to the extensive collections teing made by

EXPLORATION OF WESTERN MISSOURI IN 1854, 433

the Smithsonian Institution for materials that will settle satisfactorily this per-
plexing matter. Myson captured a number of insects, among which were
several Papilio ajax; this species is numerous here, the papaw on which the
larve feed being abundant.

18th.— Rigged out a team and went on a small branch of the Petite Saline
to fish. After following the stream three or four miles and wading a good deal
in the disagreeable muddy water, we had to return without even seeing a single
fish ; a sorry commencement in Missouri. We saw an abundance of the fol-
lowing species of frogs: Rana pipens, R. fontinalis, R. palustris, R. halecina,
R. sylvatica, and Hylodes gryllus. Shot a Canada goose and a number of
small birds. White-fronted and Canada geese are here remarkably abundant ;
they remain all winter and do much damage to the fall grain; one field that
we saw, containing twenty acres of wheat, was quite ruined.

19th—Went to Booneville; on the way we fished in a small brook and caught
several interesting little fish—among them one beautiful species of Etheostoma,
marked with bright blue and red bands.

21st Went on the river bottom ; got one parrakect and a fine little sturgeon;
caught a garter snake, which had a row of red spots on the side of the neck,
between the scales, such as I never saw before. In the afternoon we visited
“ Sallie’s Branch,” a small tributary of the Little Saline; water muddy and
brackish; caught but few fish; among them, however, were two species of
Pomotis that probably will prove new. Wild turkeys plenty; came near getting
a shot at a fine old gobbler. I obtained to-day a Scotophis alleghaniensis, 11
inches in length, the largest I ever saw; it was shot while basking in the top of
a large oak, some 50 feet from the ground; there were two in company, appa-
rently of equal size; the other escaped by crawling ina hole that was in the tree.

22d.—A black boy brought me a living Alleghany black snake, which we
released near the root of a tree. ‘The serpent, seeing that it was surrounded,
commenced ascending the trunk, but before it got out of reach I pulled it down
and removed it some 15 feet, when I again let it go; the snake finding itself at
liberty, elevated its head and took a survey of the enemy’s position; retreat be-
ing cut off by the crowd of spectators, it started at full speed for the tree, as-
cended to the first horizontal branch, on which it ran out to the extremity, then
elevating its body succeeded in reaching the next branch above, and so on until
it had ascended over the small outer branches to the top. The ease and rapidity
with which this snake climbed the tree proved that such a feat was nothing un-
usual. In this instance the snake evidently took to the tree for the purpose of
escape. This species (Scotophis alleghaniensis) is common among the bluffs
along the Missouri river, im the timber only, while the blue racer ( Bascanion
constrictor) was repeatedly found on the prairies a considerable distance from
any timber; hence we infer that the latter is less strictly arboreal in its habits
than the Scotophis alleghaniensis. I obtained here a most beautiful and un-
usually colored specimen of Celuta amana (?) ;—also specimens of Leptophis
estivus. Mr. Judson caught for me, a few days after we left here, an Elaps
fulvus, (perhaps E. tenerus.). Is not this the most northern locality in which
this beautiful southern serpent has been discovered? Shot a Vermivora penn-
sylwanica and V. solitaria. ‘A few of the advance parties of Sylvicoline begin
to make their appearance.

25th.—Harly this morning we went on board the Michigan, a splendid large
“lower river boat,”’ bound for Lexington, distance 125 miles, where we expect
to arrive to-morrow noon.

27th.—We have been three days on the boat and only 75 miles on our way;
river low; steamer too large; said to be the largest that ever ascended the Mis-
souri; and, judging.from the vexatious detentions on sand-bars, is likely to re-
main the largest.

28th.—Made eighteen miles to-day. Great numbers of geese on the islands,

28 s

434 EXPLORATION OF WESTERN MISSOURI IN 1854.

mostly the white-fronted species, here called “ blants.’”” Ducks not numerous;
those we saw were mostly wood ducks.

29th.—At Hill’s Landing this morning ; took a stroll through the woods while
the boat was being “ lightered” over the bar; found a dead snake, about four
feet in length, such as I never saw before; color above, greenish olive; beneath,
reddish yellow ; scales on the sides smooth; those on the back slightly cari-
nated. I regret that the head was so bruised and lacerated as to preclude an
examination.

30th.— Reached Lexington in the afternoon, glad enough; drove directly to
the residence of my brother, J. D. Hoy, esq., who has been for many years a
resident of Missouri. He is to accompany us in all our excursions in Missouri
and Kansas.

May 1st—Rainy day; occupied in looking over the specimens from Cooper
county.

3d.—Fished to-day in a small “branch” near the town; caught only a few
fish. Warblers are not yet abundant; mostly males; the females have not yet
come.

5th.—Drove 12 miles to the Tabo, a miserable, muddy, sluggish, fever and ague
stream. Suckers, catfish, shovel fish, and gars-are about the only species that
can live in such villanous water. My son shot a fine male Vermivora protho-
notaria

7th.—Shot a mourning finch, Zonotrichia querula. Lincoln’s finch is a com-
mon species here.

9th.—Started for Utica; had to return, as the wind was too high for the
ferry-boat to venture.

10th.—This morning we were enabled to cross; had a charming drive of 40
miles over one of the most beautiful countries I ever saw, mostly high rolling
prairie in a state of nature; much of this rich land still remains subject to entry
at government price. ‘The black-throated bunting is almost the only bird that
inhabits these prairies. Had a spirited chase after a blue racer, which finally
made good its escape by crawling into a “gopher mound.” Night overtook us
before reaching Utica. We accepted an invitation to remain until morning with
Colonel Gregory, a gentleman of wealth, formerly from North Carolina.

11th.—At an early hour we arrived at Utica, a small thriving village pleasantly
situated near the forks of North Grand river, in Livingston county, directly on
the line of Hannibal and St. Joseph railroad, now in course of construction.

12th—F ished with the minnow net in Grand river below the mill; caught
great numbers of interesting specimens. Shot a Nerodia transversa, a rare
species of water-snake, heretofore only found in Arkansas; it was basking on
some drift-wood when it was discovered by one of the ladies of our party, who
was wonderfully frightened, while | was greatly delighted. Such is education
that an object of fear, and even disgust, may be converted into a source of
delight, capable of exciting pleasurable and profitable reflections, thereby open-
ing new sources of rational enjoyment, one of the highest aims of education.

13th.—Crossed the river and drove to Chillicothe. Shot many birds, among
them a mourning finch; there were 15 or 20 in company, but it being near night
I only obtained a single specimen. The warblers are now here in their greatest
numbers ; it is remarkable that there is so little difference in the first appear-
ance of migratory birds here and at Racine, Wisconsin—certainly not more than
three days at most, while vegetation here is not less than three weeks in advance
of Racine. Made arrangements to have a large seine drawn in the river to-mor-
row.

14th—Rained all last night, which puts an end to our fishing here; this I
greatly regret, for there are several species of fish I am exceedingly anxious to
obtain, especially one species of salmo (?) called here salmon trout, a short-
billed gar, and the padde fish, which are represented as being abundant. Grand

EXPLORATION OF WESTERN MISSOURI IN 1854, 435

river is the first stream we have seen in Missouri that is tolerably well supplied
with fish. A lad caught on a hook to-day a catfish weighing 136 pounds.
Skinned a fine old gobbler shot by a friend; wild turkeys are plenty in the
vicinity.

16th.— Went on the extensive “bottoms” of Grand river, so celebrated for
rich land and heavy timber; we found the principal forest trees to be black wal-
nut, burr oak, cottonwood, sycamore, hackberry, shagbark hickory, pecan,
coffee bean, honey locust, and black birch, all of which grow to an unusually
large size. We measured the trunk of a pecan, Carya oliveformis, that was
13 feet in circumference, and held this size for at least 50 feet. Parrakeets are
abundant 4bout the large sycamores, Platanus occidentalis, in the hollows of
which they roost and nest. Here we found the home of the Trichas philadel-
phia, a locality where this bird is common; they frequent localities covered
with dense underbrush overrun with climbing roses and honeysuckles. Here,
too, in the same localities, is found the Kentucky warbler.in great abundance ; I
spent considerable time watching these active, restless little songsters, and I
must confess my surprise that any naturalist who had an opportunity of observ-
ing the dchavior of these birds, especially during their nuptial season, should
hesitate a moment in placing them among the ground warblers. They live and
nest in the underbrush, the male occasionally hopping upon a low branch of a
tree to pour forth his whittesheé, whittesheé, repeated two or three times, then
again disappearing in the tangled brush. This song is so precisely like that of
the yellow-throat that it requires a practiced ear to distinguish the one from the
other. I listened to the song of the Trichas philadelphia, T. marylandica, and
T. formosa, at the same time, and found them wonderfully alike; the song of the
T. philadelphia differing more than the Kentucky warbler’s from that of the
Maryland yellow-throat. ‘Lhe color, the rounded tail, destitute of the white
marking constantly found on the lateral feathers of the true sylvicolas, the
flesh-colored feet and legs, all combine to establish the Kentucky warbler in the
genus Trichas. Specimens of Vermivora solitaria are common here; they keep
much on the tops of trees; their song, zeé-z-2-zee, resembles closely that of
the Vermivora chrysoptera.

17th—Went hunting salamanders ; turned over a “ world” of old logs, but
found none. Is it not strange that we did not find a single specimen of this
animal in all our travels, notwithstanding we hunted diligently in every favora-
ble locality? Shot two woodchucks, Arctomys monaz, as they were running full
chase through the woods. There is here a “ gray prairie squirrel,” Spermophilus ;
we did not obtain a specimen.

18th.—Started on our return to Lexington; drove 29 miles, and put up with
the Rev. Mr. Grover, an intelligent, energetic “planter.” He gave me much
information respecting the habits of the “gopher,” Geomys, which are greatly
abundant here. On the prairie we passed at no great distance from a pair of
cranes, Grus canadensis. My brother waved his hat and shouted to them two.
or three times, when the male bird commenced, by bowing and hopping in a
ludicrous manner,—a series of amusing antics, interluded with brief samples of
vocal powers that made ample compensation in strength for any lack of melody.

19th.—Early this morning, in company with the Rev. Mr. Grover, went a
short distance on the prairies to kill “gopher,” but were disappointed in not
getting a shot. Arrived at Lexington in the afternoon; we halted on the road
to pick ripe wild strawberries.

24th— Went six miles above Lexington to fish in the Suny; caught but little.
A person accustomed to the beautiful clear streams of Wisconsin, literally filled
with fish, experiences great disappointment in visiting the muddy saline streams
of Missouri. We gota fine old “timber rattlesnake,” Crotalus durissus. If I
mistake not, it is generally believed this snake will not take food while in captivity.
Mr. S. Sercomb, at Madison, Wisconsin, has succeeded in feeding his “ pet rat-

436 EXPLORATION OF WESTERN MISSOURI IN 1854.

tlesnakes” with Jiving dirds, which they kill and swallow readily; they will
not touch frogs, or even dead birds,

25th.—This afternoon J. D. Hoy, my son, and I started in a two-horse carriage
to visit the head-waters of the Osage river. Drove twelve miles through a well
cultivated rich hemp-growing section, and put up with William Hooks, a whole-
souled Missourian, house and heart open. Caught two rare little frogs.

26th.—Travelled to-day through the rain; luckily it cleared away just long
enough for us to get a good view of the great eclipse. Near Chapel Hill, in
a dense thicket of thorns, I first heard that charming little songster Pires bellit.
I had much difficulty in procuring specimens, for the restless little birds kept
flitting from one point to another continually, all the while warbling forth their
agreeable song. From this point south we heard this bird repeatedly. Put up
during the night at Pleasant Hill, Jackson county.

27th—This morning we went four miles to witness the drawing of a seine in
the north fork of Grand river. Obtained several interesting fish, and a fine lot
of terrapins, embracing six species. Here we saw the rose bug, Melolontha sub-
spinosa, in immense numbers, the willows being literally stripped of everything
grecn by these pests of the agriculturist. In the afternoon we drove directly
south over the prairie; stopped on Elm creek to fish. While engaged in the
stream a number of our terrapins took to their legs and made good their escape;
to our sorrow three of the species left no representatives to be forwarded to the
Smithsonian Institution. Here we caught a species of Astacus different from any
I ever before saw. Put up at Dr. Maxwell’s, three miles north of Harrisonville,
Cass county, (formerly Van Buren county ;) in the evening I shot a Vespertiio
noveboracensis,

28th—Remained with the doctor. I caught a straw-colored snake unknown
to me. We learned here that there are two species of “ prairie squirrels” in-
habiting the prairies in the vicinity—one gray, the other red, called “ prairie fox
squirrel ;’’ we did not get specimens.

29th.—Rain, rain—continual rain! We held a council of war, and decided
that the water in the streams was so high that it would be impossible for us to
proceed on our contemplated route to the Little Osage, then down, va Osceola
and Warsaw, to Versailles. Being thus headed off, we concluded to strike south-
west into Kansas. We crossed the main Grand river at a mill, where I was told
bats inhabited the old frame. After a deal of punching about the angles of the
braces, I dislodged an old acquaintance— Vespertilio subulatus. There isa larger
species inhabiting the woods here, with “ prodigiously long ears,”’ called made
bat. This is the most northern point I heard of them. They are abundant
about Osceola, St. Clair county. From this we drove for twenty-five miles over
a delightful prairie, covered with beautiful wild flowers, among which the gay-
colored Phlox glaberimum was particularly conspicuous. We drove by directzon,
regardless of roads. I was many times apprehensive we should get into trouble;
but my brother's practiced eye never failed to pilot us to the desired point. We
reached the residence of Mr. Clymer, near the State line, late in the afternoon.

30th—Drove directly west six miles into Kansas, until we came to Sugar
river, a branch of the Marie des Cygne. The land on this beautiful stream is
of a superior quality, and the fine sugar-maple groves gave a homelike appear-
ance to the landscape. We caught a number of fish, notwithstanding the stream
was rather large and flushed by the recent rains for our small nets to do good
service. We were told this stream was celebrated for the large number of fine
fish its waters afford. Turkeys and deer were abundant. We ate our lunch
under the ample shade of a sugar maple, cheered by the song of a mocking bird
and a Vireo belt. From Sugar river we drove directly north, on the old military
trail, which leads over a well-watered, rich section of country. On the way I
saw the only prairie reed-bird (Dolichonyz bicolor) I ever met. I followed it, in
full chase, under a hot sun, at least two miles before I shot it. Although greatly

EXPLORATION OF WESTERD MISSOURI IN 1854. 437

fatigued, I was well satisfied at my final success in obtaining the much-coveted
bird. Arrived in the evening at Poge’s, on the line, thirty miles from Clymer’s—
the first house we have seen since morning. We saw in several places where
the prairie wolves had recently been digging burrows in the gopher mounds.
At the time, I supposed they were after the gopher, but was informed by our
host that they were digging these burrows for the purpose of concealing their
whelps. A few days since there were two badgers caught in this neighborhood.

31st.—Heavy rain all night, accompanied with much lightning and thunder.
The storm made our otherwise uncomfortable quarters still more unpleasant.
Cranes are only found here during fall and early spring, when vast flocks fre-
quently visit this locality. Poge told us he shot two that differed much from
the common species, the head being covered entirely with feathers, instead of
the bare red skin always found on the common species. One of these was so
slightly wounded that they kept it alive for some time. When angry it would
erect the feathers on the crown. These were in all probability the Grus hoyanus,
a new species recently found in Wisconsin. From Poge’s we struck a bee-line
for Independence. The heavy rains have swelled every little rivulet into almost
an impassable stream.

June 1st.—Put up last night at Independence. Started at an early hour for
Lexington. I succeeded to-day in shooting a Geomys bursarius while he was
unloading his sacks at the mouth of his hole—the first I have been able to ob-
tain, notwithstanding we have been continually where their works were abundant.
As a natural history item, I record the measurement we took to-day of the
“Missouri giant ox,” raised by H. S. Bellos, of Rochester, Andrews county,
Missouri: Length from elbow to top of withers, 34 feet; from knee to point of
shoulder, 3 feet; heel to point of hip, 44 feet; from brisket to top of shoulder,
5 feet; around the knee, 22 inches; height, 19 hands, (6 feet 4 inches;) length
from point of nose to insertion of tail, 12 feet; age, 6 years; color, red; breed,
native. We saw the skins of two beavers that had been recently caught on an
island in the Missouri river, ten miles above Lexington. We had intended to
visit the spot to view their recent works, which were represented as being a
great curiosity. Arrived at Lexington in the evening. This day is the first
that it has failed to rain since we left. In our absence Mrs. Hoy caught a
second red-marked garter-snake:

2d.—Occupied in packing and forwarding our collection to the Smithsonian
Institution, our expedition being brought to a close.

4th.—Started home, where we arrived after a rapid and pleasant journey by
way of Ohio. |

The following list embraces all the species of birds observed by me in western
Missouri:

A list of birds noticed in Western Missouri, above Boonville, between April 16
and June 15, 1854. °

Vireo flavifrons.
Vireo solitarius.
Vireo gilvus.

Antrostomus vociferus.
Chordeiles virginianus.
Progne purpurea.

Cathartes aura.
Haliztus leucocephalus.
Pandion halizetus.

Falco anatum.
Tinnunculus sparverius.
Astur atricapillus.
Accipiter fuscus.
Accipiter cooperii.
Buteo borealis.

Buteo lineatus.

Archibuteo sancti johannis.

Nauclerus furcatus.
Circus hudsonius.

Bubo virginianus.
Syrninm nebulosum. ,

Cotyle riparia.
Chaetura pelasgia.
Ceryle aleyon.
Lanius ludovicianus.
Tyrannus intrepidus.
Tyrannus crinitus.
Tyrannula virens.
Tyranunula fusca.
Tyrannula acadica.
Setophaga ruticilla.
Setophaga wilsonii.
Culicivora czerulea.

Vireo bellii.

Vireo olivaceus.
Icteria viridis.
Mimus polyglottus.
Mimus rufus.
Mimus felivox.
Turdus migratorius.
Turdus mustelinus.
Turdus wilsonii.
Sciurus aurocapillus.
Sylvicola coronata.
Sylvicola petechia.

438

Sylvicola zestiva.
Sylvicola maculosa.
Sylvicola virens.
Sylvicola blackburniz.
Sylvicola icterocephala.
Sylvicola castanea.
Sylvicola striata.
Sylvicola americana.
Sylvicola canadensis.
Sylvicola czerulea.

Trichas (Sylvicola) formosa.

Trichas marylandica.
Trichas philadelphia.
Vermivora pennsylvanica.
Vermivora peregrina.
Vermivora solitaria.
Vermivora protonotarius.
Troglodytes zedon.
Troglodytes hyemalis.
Troglodytes ludovicianus.
Regulus calendula.
Regulus satrapa.

Sialia wilsonii.

Certhia americana.

Sitta carolinensis.

Parus atricapillus.

Parus septentrionalis.(?)
Lophophanes bicolor.
Bombycilla americana.
Zonotrichia iliaca.
Zonotrichia melodia.
Zonotrichia pennsylvanica,
Zonotrichia leucophrys.
Zonotrichia passerina.
Zonotrichia pusilla.
Zonotrichia socialis.

Zonotrichia savanna.
Zonotrichia lincolnii.
Chrysomitris tristis.
Chondestes grammacea,
Euspiza americana.
Spiza cyanea.

Pitylus cardinalis.
Cocoborus ludovicianus.
Pyranga rubra.
Pyranga estiva.
Sturnella ludoviciana.
Yphantes baltimore.
Yphantes spurius.
Dolichonyx oryzivora.
Dolichonyx bicolor.
Molothrus pecoris.
Agelaius pheeniceus.
Quiscalus versicolor.
Cyanocorax cristatus.
Corvus americanus.
Corvus corax.
Trochilus colubris.
Picus pileatus.
Dendrocopus villosus.
Dendrocopus pubescens.
Dendrocopus varius.

Melanerpes erythrocephalus.

Colaptes auratus.
Centurus carolinus.
Coceyzus americanus.

Coccyzus erythrophthalmus.

Conurus carolinensis.
Ectopistes carolinensis.
Meleagris gallopavo.
Ortyx virginana.
Bonasa umbellus.

EXPLORATION OF WESTERN MISSOURI IN 1854.

Tetrao cupido.

Rallus elegans.

Rallus virginianus.
Grus canadensis.
Ardea herodias.
Botaurus lentiginosus.
Ardeola exilis.
Charadrius marmoratus.
Charadrius vociferus.
Tringa pictoralis.
Tringa maritima.
Tringa pusilla.
Totanus vociferus.
Totanus flavipes.
Totanus solitarius.
Totanus macularius.
Totanus bartramius.
Numenius longrirostris,
Limosa fedoa.

Anser canadensis.
Anser albifeous.

Anas clypeata.

Anas boschas.

Anas strepera.
Querquedula discors.
Querquedula carolinensis,
Dendronessa sponsa.
Fuligula marila.
Fuligula rufitorques.
Clangula albeola.
Mergus merganser.
Mergus cuculatus.
Sterna nigra.

Colymbus glacialis,
Podiceps cornutus.
Podiceps cristatus.

TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

AVOIRDUPOIS.
Sar ear RT
Grains. Drachms. | Ounces. Lbs. Qrs. | Cwt. | Tons.

(QUAI os es sees 1 nys baeteaete see, se ectat ee ae Sores |= === Se eae eee
Drachm!... 25-32 27,34 Da ae rte fy Ge Nal bee Ca Ne
QuncCes > =n pespea- 437.5 16 TD aisaoree testes ease ane oe = eens
RPoundie ence ansebin 7000. 256 16 We eat ooo tenes oe
Qwartetee o- cea'4-4 = 196000. 7168. 448, 28. Tybetices | rece
Oyite ca aqcente gnats 784000, 28672. 1792. 112. 4 Alege ate
ones se os eh 15680000, 573440, 35840, 2240, 80 20 1

TROY WEIGHT.

Grains. | Dwts. |Ounces.| Lb.
(CEN 2 See ee a se Oe eo ain & da Ciaaeati eee cysmets 5 (Ee ee ene SRT as AGE Gm me Fe
EUR cide on a nnn gee ek inn ani agt 24 jp Maer esperg ai ese -
‘1QunCeseetasrcscee teehee boGele hateetata,ctaceee 480 20 i leoteee
(eet eae a del Bignlaeniig i abil heated 5760 240 12 | 1
1 cubic inch of distilled water, in air, at 62° F............-- — 252.456 er.
1 cubic inch of distilled water, 7m vacuo, at 629 F.......--..- == 252.722 gr.
Cubie inches.

PAO eclacicm aslo o.9.0 + aad ae) bed» «= <n a Se

EE oy <9 st-lae- 53 bd ow tivals ddciek + sean == 34.659.

dL BOle GUNCOs fos ~- « neeseie Sin et et ete =, seo:

OME Ceab ard TEAS 3 or ccjerd eae os sees == 61.024.

DiGi Pes MOMENTS 6 45-55 «<1lS oars nl bens wo nd we = 0.061024.

TC CRUMOTE ee ow 3 oo cn wine oo « Sa wen a mee te = 16.387 cubic centimetres.

1.00000 parts of gas at 32° F., 29.922 bar., (also at 32°,) become, at 60° F.,
bar. 30 inches, (also at 60°) 1.05720 parts.

FRANCE.
METRICAL SYSTEM NOW IN USE.
LENGTH.
English value.

Millimetre, (1,000th of a metre).... 0.03937 inch.
Centimetre, (100ih of a metre)... -- 0.39371 inch.
Decimetre, (10th of a metre) ...... 3.93708 inches.
Metre,* (unit of length).........-. 39.3708 inches, or 3.2809 feet.
Decametre, (10 metres) ..--.--.--- 32.809 feet, or 10.9363 yards.
Hectometre, (100 metres)..-.------ 328.09 feet, or 109.3633 yards.
Kilometre, (1,000 metres).-....---- 1,093.63 yards, or 0.62138 mile.
Myriametre, (10,000 metres)....-... 10,936.33 yards, or 6.21382 miles.

* The metre is a ten-millionth part of the quadrant of the meridian of the earth, or, in other
words, the ten-millionth part of the distance from the equator to the pole. _

440 TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

SURFACE.
English value.
Centiare, (100th of an are, or a square
Meire)y =.= - =) - 2 ss eee 1.1960 square yard.
Are, (square decametre and unit of
IOIE, 2) SOROS SOSOEE OIE Sa 119.6033 square yards, or 0.0247 acre.
Wevare, (10 ares)... .2.:. sass see 1,196.033 square yards, or 0.2474 acre.
Preciare; (100 ares)... s seman 2 = 11,960.33 square yards, or 2.4736 acres.
CAPACITY.
Millilitre, (1,000th of a litre, or cubic
pembimetie)*: 264-2 - se as Sse 0.06103 cubic inch.
Centilitre, (100th of a litre)......-- 0.61027 cubic inch.
Decilitre, (10th of a litre)...-.....- 6.10270 cubic inches.
Litre, (cubic decimetre and unit of
SEPT) a tinea ee mreeet os we rege = 610.2705 cubic inches, or 2.2010 galls.
Wacalitre, (10 litres)o 1. ..-2 4g. --% 61.02705 cubic inches, or 1.7608 pt.
Eeetolitre;*(100 litres yews. S25. -. 3.53166 cubic feet, or 22.0097 galls.
Kilolitre, (1,000 litres, or cubic metre) 35.31658 cubic feet, or 220.0967 galls.
Myrialitre, (10,000 litres) ......... 353.1658 cubic feet, or 2,200.9667 galls.
SOLID.
Decistere, (10th of a stere)......-- 3.5317 cubic feet.
Sucre, (cubic metre). i... tisces.% 35.3166 cubic feet.
Deeastere, (10 steres).5..--055.--- 353.1658 cubic feet.
WEIGHT.
Milligramme, (1,000th of a gramme). 0.0154 grain.
Centigramme, (100th of a gramme). . 0.1544 grain.
Décigramme, (10th of a gramme). - - - 1.5440 grain.
Gramme, (unit of weight).--...-..- 15.44 grains.
Decagramme, (10 grammes) .....-- 154.4 grains. -
Hectogramme, (100 grammes)...... 1,544 grains, 3.2167 oz. troy, or-3.5291
oz. avoirdupois. ‘
Kilogramme, (1,000 grammes) -... - 322 oz. troy, or 2.2057 lbs. avoirdupois.
Myriagramme, (10,000 grammes)... 3213 oz. troy, or 22.057 lbs. avoirdupois.

Value of millimetres in English inches.

Millimetres. | English inches.|| Millimetres. | English inches.|| Millimetres. | English inches.

0. 03937079 45 ste. ASTNG: || W25 so cee 4.941
0. O7874158"|| S0ps=52--. 1.968 130 .Stscoee 5. 118
0. 118it23% || Soge25-,-5"- 2. 165 139) See sete 5. 315
0. 15748316 || 60 .-..--..- 2. 362 140. 2s as. 5. 512
0. 19685395: ||" (Gbyae = <<< 2. 509 145). 5 Soe So 5. 708
0. 23622474 |} 70 .....--.- 2. 756 1S ON seets see 5. 906
OL. 27095 SSHTT Fox aes Sec 2. 953 LES 3% 25 ea 6. 103
0. 31496632 || 80 .......- 3. 149 1LBO Richt 6. 299
0. 35433711 BO corte cya 3. 346 Ca aeeee ne 6. 496
Oes0sT0T90 || GU) csmeteee = 3.543 HAO SS ce coins 6. 693
0.5905 Gov oss 3. 740 US areatase 6. 890
0. 7874 100) G5 222 3. 937 180s 582 222. 7. 087
0. 9842 UBM Esesacie 4,134 185,22 oe4s0- 7.284
IIS WO ees ore ee 4,331 190 ye aeere see 7. 480
1.3779 1 4,528 IR Bisse 288e 7. 677
1.5748 (PO ereee= 4,744 2) somo ons 7. 874

TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 441

Table for the conversion of degrees of Centigrade thermometers into those of
Fahrenheit’s scale.

|

Cent. Fah. Cent. | Fah. || Cent. Fah. Cent. Fah.
—100 —148. 0 —49 —56. 2 2 35. 6 53 127.4
— 99 —146. 2 —48 —54. 4 3 37.4 54 129.2
— 98 —144.4 —47 —52. 6 || 4 39.2 55 131.0
— 97 —142.6 —46 —50.8 |, 5 41,0 “56 132.8
— 96 —140.8 —45 —49. 0 || 6 42.8 57 134.6
— 95 —139.0 —44 —A7.2 7 44.6 58 136, 4
— 94 | —137.2 —43 —45. 4 |}: 8 46.4 59 138. 2
— 93 —135.4 —42 —43. 6 || 9 48. 2 60 140.0
— 92 —133.6 —41 —41.8 || 10 50.0 61 141.8
— 91 —131.8 —40 —40. 0 11 51.8 62 143.6
— 90 —130. 0 —39 —38. 2 12 53.6 s 63 145.4
— 89 —128.2 —38 —36. 4 13 55. 4 64 1A
— 88| —126.4 —37 —34. 6 14 Bae 65 149.0
— 87 | —124.6 —36 —32. 8 i 59.0 66 150.8
— 86 | —122.8 —3D —31.0 16 60.8 67 152.6
— 85 —121.0 —34 —29,2 17 64.6 68 154.4
— 84 —119.2 —33 —27.4 18 64. 4 69 156. 2
— 83 —117.4 —32 —25. 6 19 66.2 70 158. 0
— 82| —115.6 i —23.8 20 68. 0 71 159.8
— 61 —113.8 —30 —22.0 21 69.8 72 161.6
— 80 —112.0 |. —29 —20.2 22 71.6 73 163, 4
— 79 —110.2 —28 —18.4 8 ae 74 165.2
— 78} —108.4 —27 —16.6 24 oer 75 167.0
— 77 —106.6 —26 —14.8 25 77.0 76 168.8
— 76 | —104.8 == OF —13.0 26 78.8 Zhi 170.6
— 75 —103. 0 —24 —11.2 Lyi 80.6 78 172.4
— 74| —101.2 Je — 9.4 28 62.4 79 174, 2
—73| — 99.4 ——99 — 7.6 29 84,2 80 176.0
—72| — 97.6 —21 — 5.8 30 8&6. 0 81 |. 177.8
—71| — 95.8 —20 — 4.0 31 87.8 82 179.6
—70| — 94.0 —19 — 2.2 So 89..6 83 181.4
— 69} — 92,2 —18 — 0.4 33 91,4 84 183. 2
— 68} — 90.4 —17 + 1.4 34 93:2 85 185.0
— 67 | — 88.6 —16 one 35 95. 0 8&6 186.8
— 66| — 86.8 —15 5.0 36 96.8 87 188.6
— 65 | — 85.0 —14 6.8 37 98.6 88 190.4
— 64} — 83,2 —13 8.6 38 100.4 89 192, 2
— 63 — 81.4 —12 10, 4 39 102.2 90 194, 0
— 62 | — 79.6 —}] 12.2 40 104. 0 91 195.8
— 61 — 77.8 —10 14.0 41 105.8 92 197.6
— 60 — 76.0 —9 15.8 42 107.6 93 199.4
— 59} — 74.2 —8 17.6 43 109, 4 94 201. 2
— 58) — 72.4 — 7 19.4 44 itd ey 95 203. 0
— 57 — 70.6 — 6 21.2 45 113.0 96 204.8
— 56| — 68.8 —5 23. 0 46 114.8 97 206. 6
— 55 — 67.0 —A4 24.8 47 116.6 98 208. 4
— 54| — 65.2 —3 26. 6 48 118. 4 99 210.2
—53 | — 63.4 —2 28,4 49 120. 2 100 212.0
— 52| — 61.6 —1 30.2 50 122.0 101 213.8
— 5l — 59.8 — 0 32. 0 5] 123.8 102 215.6
— 50} — 58.0 +1 33.8 52 125. 6 103 217.4

442 TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

The following table embraces the latest and most accurate equivalents, as
accepted by Will, in the Jahreslericht fur Chemie, for 1863:

Table of chemical equivalents of the sixty-three elements.

OXYGEN =8.

AT OMINUM £56 cis xno odts 8) ee ies / NOVEM. castecsece Sock INDE scolcneae keto
ANMONY toca === ra Se} | QsmyUM oe ine mina a 3 99. 6
Arsenie <i tett as oes eee 75 JE 8
i 2igihoesy seer Ba --- 68.5 Cree sancter-prarse bi é 16
ARIS ROTO a este! eee eer Bi = ee 210 Palladium: sas. o0 22 S60 die 53.3
ROE SSeS Sooo eG S B sas: 10.9 || Phosphorus «s---- .... ic 31
MOT OUTING ee tee ee pret 80 Rianmum essence ss. eo Pee ye 98. 7
asbon. Cpasse 6 Potassium) .sanc-easee Kye. 32) aro89
Tea Shae a 12 RB OGIUIM 2 sepa craic on | elne 52.2
Cadmium tia... ee iis: Os eee 50 UII see aes aoe Bibi..22 85.4
WREST eb see eacicsocate ar tase 133 Rutheniwni-ee. 5. oe aes 52.2
WMLEMIM cote eed oak of es 20 Sree 16
@etinm 225455608 be OCR 456 Sulphur -..--.. ------ ; Bo ee 32
Chlorine) =6 Js. 3.0 cote Oe Sone Selenium .:i6.<..----4 Se. .- 39.7
Chromium :. 2-25 ----u- Ue os 26.1) |W SNeleccosemeeer Seen Ag.-.| 108
WObalt -rsohesecoe 228. Go =. 29.4 148
Wap Per ones nau tanin sae Ch ae's 30, Zi TSilieinm \-b<a~easeee Siyzss. |) 214
MDWENTUM) <-gce0 Sate aces i 1) SR ee | Seve Oe eee Q85
Didymiumit >. 55-15. s- s 1 Nels ATS |\(SOCIMIN .s cen. ose Nai-s-|>1 (23
Plworinesse Se i code Fi-— == 19 Strontiam sssels 2.24 Syisiis 43.8
Goold. 8 BSE cerensiere thet Al s& i 197 Tantalum oses:d 5-1. ea8 "Tas 23 68, 86
i AG). | RelWQrytimn s< taeere oto nae hee 64
Glucinum -..---.-.-.+- Gl. .. i 7 Oe) Nace. ¢ cies esis = cet "Bheieen| | Oe
WORING soci. dar cece ge Tececs 127 Th 59, 167
LU ee a eo te : 28 57. 867
NAN = coe eee cscs Me covey | Moneta ore saree A 118, 38
ee en E Tt .-..| 99... |}, PhOriam ».409¢ as<r-n2 Th ---19 435,78
Raenthanum. 22... 3% aise: 46. 4 Ahi sh ene i oe 25
GGnh.c eck sonmcce sods Pins: 103.5 Wrenn ss eecc <s<o-k Ween. 60
1110 805000 ey ee 5 Ti. 2 7 Vanadium. cue <cjsese% Wert-© 68. 6
Magnesium. .......-<4- ae 12 Wasium (?) «...------ wie abd eston as
Manganese...---.-.---- Mn... 27.5 = 929
Ree Ho ronan TH Weegee eae =~ --= ; a¥_.| 153, 28%
st ty: aaa ..| 200 Vitusimis.igten ese 8 Ye cb Ce aie
Molybdenum .......-.- Mo... 48 Zi AD as)... Seee
Beet ocr ce aS Se wi aba ree: oae..,.| 18
Mropiam se Ver ssre sok: NDLK 48,8 Q2, Ail
WMEOP ON: «2 eo a a ae je 14 Zitéonium's Jas). s./. 22% Zr ..-|4 33.61%
44, 818
1Tf elucine =Gl O. 6Tf tantalic acid =Ta O3. loTf it =Wo O3.
21f glucine = Gl, Os. TIf thoria =Th O. Tf zirconia = Zr O.
3Tf silicic acid =§$i Og. 8If it —=Th QO. 12Tf it —Zre Os.
4If =Si Os. ‘If tungstic acid = Wo Os. Tf it =Zr Og.

5If it =Si Og.

CONTENTS,

REPORT OF THE REGENTS.

Letter of the Secretary to Congress communicating report-..-......-..-------.2----

Letter of the Chancellor and Secretary submitting report for 1864................--

Officers and Regents of the Smithsonian Institution...............--.2222-2------

_ Members ex officio and honorary members of the Institution.........--..-.-..-----

Propransic otirennivation 2222 isseeu st 2). IT ee

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, Prof. HENRY, for 1863....-......-...---.--------
Appendix to the report of the Secretary :

Draper’s telescope, by the Rev. T. W. Webb, A. M., F. R. A. S....-...

Brief review of a memoir on the cretaceous reptiles of the United States,

published in the fourteenth volume of the Smithsonian Contributions to

Knowledge, by the author, Joseph Leidy, M. D....---..------..--.--

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY, Prof. BAIRD..........--.------------

Statisties of international exchange... .-. 2-222. S22. e222 oot tlle

Wonuons to, the muscunmimMSO# 2). see eso e ee Cones a ee aoe

Donations to the library from foreign institutions during the years 1860-4.

Donations to the library from individuals of foreign countries during the

Wears OOU— A. 1... socs ce cectae ees Cee Coreen ete iene eee eens

LIST OF METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS OF THE SMITHSONIAN IN-
SECUURIONT ROW UTHE” VEait~ 164 “eee tc, ee oe a am ee Oe at ee a

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. .....----. ------0eeeeeee econ eens ceee
JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.......--..--c00 -eceee

GENERAL APPENDIX.

MEMOIR) OF DELAMBRE, -by. JOSEPH. FOURIER ...<. << -222 5-5-6252 sosssc2.2---
Essay ON THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT, by M. DELAUNAY...-.-.....--..---------
OZONE AND ANTOZONE, by CHARLES M. WETHERILL, Ph. D., M. D.-..---------
VEGETATION AND THE ATMOSPHERE, by J. JAMIN.-.----.----.----------------
EXTRACT OF A MEMOIR ON THE PRESERVATION OF COPPER AND IRON IN SALT
NVATER MDM a DRCQUPBRIL .\25-—isace a ceniseaas hme Os ees coe am seep epee =
PRESERVATION OF W OOD «..--2---- FAB se. hc sinc ac ee Sree MEU
CAOWECHOUC AND GUTTA*P PERCH Age 2c a ee ete o omits Heb oa alos etelcie eraiaiajo-ninrata ays oie
THE PRODUCTS OF THE COMBUSTION OF GUN-COTTON AND GUNPOWDER UNDER
CIRCUMSTANCES ANALOGOUS TO THOSE WHICH OCCUR IN PRACTICE, by Lieu-
Tent ViONGRAROLVI = scl one aceasta = Sl a Seals eae rae Sealare/e elela ties leimimnia
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS FOR TESTING THE RESULTS OF PERSPIRATION AND
RESPIRATION IN THE PHYSIOLOGICAL INSTITUTE AT MUNICH, by Prof. Max
IPE TEE NKORNE) cos ose) acs oo < cas cee sine sae oa ote cia ele eine atalelst catetelal=' ate stot alatatatintelats
THE SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JULY 18, 1860, by Dr. J. LAMONT-~......--------------
REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL
HISTORY OF GENEVA, 1861, by Rev. M. DuBy, president...-..-.--------------
ON THE CRANIA HELVETICA, by FREDERICK TROYON.........----------------

101
11
114

125
135
166
178

191

196
206

221

235
240

261
282

444 CONTENTS.

EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL RESEARCHES ON THE FIGURES OF EQUILI-
BRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY, &c.,
by Prof. J. PLATEAU....--- -252- Rep 2 eet Gee ee pln cena eee aieneees ones

ARTIFICIAL SHELL-DEPOSITS IN NEW JERSEY, by CHARLES RAU.------.....--.

THE INTERMIXTURE OF RACES, by GEORGE GIBBS.----..--...-.---------.--.-

AN ACCOUNT OF THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF THE CALIFORNIA PENIN-
SULA, as given by JACOB BAEGERT, a German Jesuit missionary, who lived there

. seventeen years during the second half of the last century.----.--..------.-----

THE First STEPS IN THE STUDY OF HicH ANTIQUITY IN EuRo?PE, by A. Mortor.

PRIZE QUESTIONS. —ExTrRacT FROM THE PROGRAMME OF THE HOLLAND

SOCIETY OF SCIENCES AT HARLEM, FOR 1865....-...-.--...-.-..-.

IMPERIAL SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF CHERBOURG. PRO-

GRAMME OF COMPETITION FOR 1868........---..-.----<---.4--- sli

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF THE PHYSICAL-MATHEMATICAL CLASS OF THE

RoyaL Russian ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FOR THE YEARS 1861-’67.
GEOLOGICAL PRIZE ANNOUNCED ON May 30, 1864, BY THE IMPERIAL
ACADEMYAOE /SCIENCESPAT ViTEN NAS a= ooo eas oni Pe
EXPLORATIONS.—ScIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO MEXICO. A REPORT ADDRESSED
TO THE EMPEROR BY THE MINISTER OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION....-

A JOURNEY TO THE YOUCAN, RUSSIAN AMERICA, by W. W. KirBy-.
EXPLORATION IN UPPER CALIFORNIA IN 1860, UNDER THE AUSPICES

OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, by JOHN L'EILNER, U.S. A---

JOURNAL OF AN EXPLORATION OF WESTERN MISSOURI IN 1854, UN-

DER THE AUSPICES OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, by P. R.

HOY, Ms Dias. 2. cccceccces cceces secaee sc cet a eepasheaaa= ch oteeee

TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES...-.. epepaid sce mmesewjeamtectibencotoce.

PAGE.

285
370
075

378

400

404

409

410

411

412
416

421

431
439

INDEX.

PAGE
Aboriginal inhabitants of the California peninsula ...-.....---.-.---..----.------ 378
Mieaccizs Profil... i Actyds Rerontt “2. ete CM aos 2 ole oP oe 114, 115
Alexander, (ColoneliB:, $2, Aidfurnished byt .f-2¢% .2222c aah eee 117
Thanks -to, sis020225) dO dade gece ee beet ee etee ceee eee aee 121
Wexanher.C. AN tvanslations by cess ced ese eee See eee eee 125, 196, 261, 273
Seexander, kref.:8: - Wapedition of222555 451; sac cstedaebostedacans beeeee's ss tess 47
Bilge. DAmMericaweids. se ase els eles see Suede soe se Bees om eee esas ae aes 52
‘Mien, HY Monopraph*on North Americaw bats: -..2-- 2-22.25 22.2022. ee eee bole 53
PASC Ii Get ce = o's a5 See eee ihe eete caer ele Salas alee Soe einiorare aloe eiatcleleia ee ein iclalaia cls 52
Pen mpnia=—saopalireases. <0. Ses Ske nee ta deee eeaets SST e hes keane nanan 48
Antiquity. Study of high, in Europe ....-......-- Pei te al A Re elie te 400
Apparatus for testing results of perspiration and respiration..............---.------ 235
Eepponder Gr rcHOr Of WeCIOlNly ss-o22co- +56 ees mae been ee teen eee tae sete esas A 74
MrcHelate teases On. Rose cee aes eRe Seee Tee ewe E a eee mame ce nas Nea maemo
PRRIONOMY Reece ese tase csdec tester hacen saasse esas one osemaaaeerescmarcan a 45
MHinGnMUNCElepnolorrTaphy.< 222.22 ch sttodssconssssSneceP ace te seme e aace ee deme 48
feneoteouetan GCL) PRanks, toll lS ics cess tasvel sais acaeee sae cage awe ane oe ae 121
isachowbrotsAcsb):~-Einess of s2255 Sos s5 5s 555 Fee ae ee ees Sasso cee eee 13
Magnetic observations at Girard College-......---..----.- ee 48, 17,18
Baegert, Jacob. Aboriginal inhabitants of the California peninsula-..-.....-.-.-- 378
Baley vero Marne SOUNndINg Ss =: .- -.-c\.- =sa meee ae ee ai a esfeeree em eeteen mee 55
Baird, Prof. S. F. Catalogue of North American birds. .....2:.....-s260--25-4---- 53
Peperef, for 186423226 3 5e jabssces s5245uesay ons sense see eee eee 74
Bats, North American. Monograph on ....... -.------2- s-0-e0eee- eee ene oe 2 one 53
Beautortie brary, trom, destroyedubysttes.22.5ss2as5ens ss en eeee tee. aaa 119
Becquerel, M. Extract of a memoir on the preservation of copper and iron in salt
WiHlIG? = Jidnc cae > SE BERER BODE OBO 20 SaOS So SsE sp Rare he See Gaal 0o ace 0 5D op DToeeS 191
Beers, Dr. Exploration by... .-- 2s <je0<s0+ necess o> deseo nee icacieis-ie- ssesese-se5s 48
Berendt, Dy. Explorations by...--..-.....--------<2---0- sseens cone nse ece ones 50
Bibliography of American conchology...--.-----------------+-----+-+---+-+---+ 21
Binney, W.G. Bibliography of American conchology --.-------------+--------- = 21
North American conchology -......-+-- ------=- --2--smsieenowees --sces 53
Birds. Description of eggs of North American..-.-..-.-----------+-----+-----+---- 53
Booth, Prof. Report on chemical arts.....-.--------------+--2--+ sse0++ ---- +--+ 48
Botany.-.--.-------- ------ -- 2-2 e ee ee ce ene cee ne eee cee cee eee ee se eee eee 52
Bowen, Mr. On Yorubu language .....--------------- ---------++------------- 65
Brewcts, Dr. T. M. Description of North American birds’ eggs.------.----------- 53
California peninsula. Aboriginal inhabitants of...--.-..------------------------- 78
Caoutchouc and gutta-percha..--....---2------- 0-2-2 + fee eee ene eee ne eee ee enee 206
Warniol, J. Explorations by.....-.00---- <1 -%--n-5 --esseJ5e5esegssssasnsnaseee 50
Carpenter, Mr. P. P. Shells of northwest coast...---------.-------------------- 53
Carter, Judge. Explorations by..----..--------------------2-+ 22-22 e2eeee eee 50
Catalogue of North American birds.....-..----- ---------- --- 22+ -2 2222 cee eee ee 53
Glase, Hon. 8. 2... Acts: as, Retent. <<. <- s<5sasansnnsanese+ ese nthh Stee ame eee 114 115
@Gheclz-listiot minmeralsssacss > canes sees = Be Siiale Lot Re oe SSSR ara eis loss 52

Chinook. Jargon: --- 20-00 s2 = sn acss escent essen ecetae bois emnaniods daeees Ue8d 2 <= 55

446 INDEX.

PAGE.
lass, A., architect rr sccteeoarsiatreerorr arte ae Wake ose ea daatetareee bieiee Oe tee 122
Gofin, Prof..J> H. Critical study. of storms byi+s sss n254+scces soos dae eee ee 26
Collections in natural -history 22-55-5296 <tiss2bs9 A345 sss sccnsarsacseue eee Ss 30
@Wollections:, “Miscellaneous S525 225224 Fae 2 Sec electe era ak Dae Sea Ue 21
Colleges, &c., from which meteorological registers were received....--.----------- 107
@onchology.. . North American. .13ss0252222<232.0.800l06. gus Sl eee 53
@onnor;, J... Deathsof. sci wcnctnencese. co Eel A BE le 121
@Winrad,-T. . Check-list, of fossils’ 200 pd OSA SR ish Pee 212
Contributions to Knowledge. Account of vol. xiii:..:.2222252/SUU lL LL 17
Gaoper;- Dro) Hxplorations iby -==225 =2+42-2 sh eee ee 48
Copper and iron. Preservation of, in salt water...... s.0220 sseces eect ed lee cee eee 191
Perrespondenld .-.- nea een rere wes eer were eh catanclw ada eh aeedeae =e Pree ee 55
Pouch... Hxploraiions bY. oss55 890954 s4200%4420400520bd diese peas st De ee 50
®oues;,.Dr. Hh. . Explorations by 2-4 4-3-4 e joscrqa ast eee J eee oe eee 48
Cox, Hon. 8. 8. Acts as Regent.........------ dictesanrived Adan. 114, 116, 120, 121, 122
Craig, B. F. Remarks on combustion of gun-cotton and gunpowder..-.---------- 232
Pitania Jbelveticgon cece ae c5 pean one nani Ee S.b¢ ands ciscbik sass 282
(yptacaous reptiles of United States... ........~ .5.-4.)<nmssme-mpsnena eh eee = ek 66
Dakota language..----....--..- iricinieiniol= ieee Ae paeG eral 26 =A beeen ais See eee 55
Duvis, C. H.,.U..S..N.. .Law.of deposit.of flood-tide. . 2... -s0nSbebs Woes. -eeee ee 52
Davis, C. H., Rear-Admiral, U. 8. N. Letter with reference to memoir on preserva-
tion of .copper and. iron in. galt -wabert.Je5¢ 2643 JY .A8 eek. .oshseageus. bosoake 191
Wavis,.Hon..G... Acts as Regent <.14aasasnatacssaaaiaasasdseeeneee 114, 116, 117, 121
Dayton, Hon. W..-L. - - Death: Of: os2se0sceseeseascrss st Bee MeL SLR «EU SS 13
Mean, Dr... John. ..On medulla. oblongata . «240252456083 CA0e Rosell See: 55
Plates of his paper on the medulla oblongata destroyed by fire------- ---- 17
De Beust, Wes « duoss -by lina his cs sor sore eso ee re SO eS 119
Delafield, General Richard. . Elected Regent... 55.5.0. .2202- cece ee lene e eee 121
Memniber-of-Exeeutive Committedrsioe 20. 22 22 PIs. te 122
Delambré.+ + Memoirsofs J. ecco csnssrrrss Sea paas Te SP, SSR Le ek 125
Delaunay, M. » Essay on velecity-of light: :scss0ssccsesecuse sae. s SIL Tiss 135
Shstribution of:duplicateds.J 225523 P22 SSIS Oe. Aa are 31, 85
Penatioas-to library-in WG-1 255.04 SF] A Ee eS SA 86
museum in -1864.23922seee02 55 503 SER ee eae 86
Draper, Dr. Henry. Construction of a silvered glass telescope..--------------- 17, 20, 62
Astronomical whotograplysssrs:tlsrstsa ss passa Ask ssc ae eee se eee 48
Drexler, M. - Explorations by: +: sssesceesso2225202 258 22579200 ROS 48
Duby, Rev. M. Report of Society of Physics and Natural History of Geneva... 261,273
Shiplicates.-~- Dieixibution» of ssc tosses dsc SoTL se ete 85
Dyer, General A. B.- - Thanks: t0sss22235ee bosses Ul sa kes candsosseso eee eae ane 121
®plesion, M: E..- Check-list of mineralg.ss..2565555./0 02545 CCS - Bh 52
Wlectrie.currents. - Researches obs 3255224522 20S 52s 2 SSI Pe. A 48
Ellet, Charles. Physical geography of Mississippi valley........---.2.---------- 52
Hivans,-Jic R.-~ “Thanks to:sG ars sss Sein Ja Ss Ore ee 121
Mithnology sssssesescss22 seaaadsnscsssgs 28 Oe Bo OIE cee 24
Mthnology and philology s.: ==: /2ersesdcansnss: sore Oe RS PTTL. Le sae 55
(Rx changes. sss 5ahenssocceserssas sess east ase ET 31
xchange... Account, of,.and:statisties= =: 242s Cae ea eee ee Se 75
xchange. . Intermational...222ces024 keds base slocas eden Mees ae 55
ix plorations) j.Jgietscdeesaccsssaccekecstecsoe see Se eee eee ee 48
Pixploration of, Moxico .....-c¢<s+esqseeeseysessc sacl ie eee See ees 412
in Upper,Califomia in 1860). 5.2224 2s22< aseme dace see seme eee oe ee 421

of western Missouri in 1854.........c0.cccccece sesdeessssces Sees 431

INDEX. 447

PAGE.

Explorations to the Youcan, Russian America..-.....-..-----. pamicla=/= beatae cif $416
Biktinct cretacaans Teptiled..«.ncccvaes.eeseacise seb de Kfadedassls te ebbaledesd. 52
Binet Oe ANd Oth wi seecsasesatvenesdssecerasys¥sa one teed athe dt sued 52
Extract of a memoir on the preservation of copper and iron in salt water....-2...-.. 191
Harel ns. hanks iO... peitseee Ghee bial beer, Lesiunlpshiieds tae enier. re 53 121
Wauna.and flora within living avimals... aoe eadsines sod ance tidiodknndeshwedhs -seetle 55
Beiiner, Captain J., U.S.A, . Explorations by —---sahsnscr dssere ws wackell-,i.9 48
Feilner, John, U. 8. A. Explorations in Upper California in 1860_........--.---- 421
Biiriences of ithe Institution. 222 0525.6 o. Hite = fae hs sctias. seeded cd eeenis dae 15
OE ea le hae el ain Sal no um wien Sodan oe eae 13, 14, 32, 117
Fluctuation of level of great American lakes. ....-. ...- ----00 s-se05gneneene-scnn- 52
Mburier, Joseph, ..Mempic af. Delambre. wink anciciblsiceisi-ininc meses tebe Geb ndiouadlsais eee 125
CREA os UCU Olvauciavasaceuned nwvsadees peveretiions pasate ee TLCMBUMIN Dike A6
Greuth, Dr: Ammanis-cobalthases..<25.5+<c0nseaneeel- 94 ee eee tn atl. 48
Ban bsy rs Aminbnis cobalt. bases. cjceinamsveeerernmmey aa dieeek SEMIN IE seek ee 48
Gibbs, George. Chinook jargon............--.-.--..-..- so Aewvinuwash ..tL ob 55
Intenmixture Of VSC0S. <.ccuncnescsekubeanln diliind sie scaeaeameele sos. 375

Pabbs, .Gu- Dhanks tos... sc0acsncsemscosecur essere eel ae. 16 Sale eee 121
Pops; Wr ik.. W....Memoix.on Mososalrusasecsanws ocacs< te docacen seal meen tee 52
eres, Colonels , DLhanks (0.52. s4.0seeee eet de tieehek Se pe ee eo 121
Gray, Prof. Plants of New Mexico and California. -.......-..2......---2-------- 52
Gun-cotton and gunpowder. Products of combustion of........-.---.------------ 221
Bemudieach.; ij Hocplorations -hy.. 5.31540 os44-6-4s~=50.~.2hsee ae AL 50
Semin, don: HH. - Acts (aa Regent: 5.44 e2<4<0se0es (u-Sockeee... EAs 114, 115, 116
Biancock;, General: W./S.: ¢ Phanks; to: ss 4ssc4dsostesqeddecsiiehaet edo... .ede hoo 121
Siaro, Dr... Ecxplosibility Gimitmes$ccceese kbs sdocbass ade are sega eee We eRe: ele
meeeey,, Dr, . American plow <3 * 53552555 soaks rack ao 3 sl ae ee ac ee ae 52
meen. Mr. American archmology: 2-2... 2 2aset' Jaesy-2 essa bee eee 55
Hayden, Dr. F. V. Paleeontology of the Upper Missouri, by F. B. Meek and.----- se
Penny. Erol. J. Acts im Board of Rerents 7224) Sa Se 114, 115, 116, 119, 120, 121
maw, Or. Explorations ‘by - 2252422425223 24./2/seatt So toste ge geese. ok ee 50
Hough, Dr. Franklin B. Meteorological observations arranged by.-.....-.-------- 25
Hoy, P. R., M. D. Explorations of western Missouri in 1854...............------ 431
Meeubard: Prof.Jes., U. 8. N..: Translation by: = 2...) Uses boats ae eee Shee ae 24)
iienmixture: Of TACES: 22-25 <sasnasbeeaense basses ye see ee eee e)- een en Sele 375
Batemavonal exchanve.- = s==s>ss=0a5= a= sae = a2 50 Sateen eles epee ie <== 55
Pian Dr Exploration py2+ === =s-=.44-+a4 sss ss ae see 5 ee heme eeenaw aed 50
Jamin, J. Vegetation and the atmosphere, 22.5224. 0. ccc c cn cnietewe ices cee sabe 178
@obns, Bishop: - Library destroyed by fires 324-2. sn al ee tebe antes asd ED
mohnson: President. 225° +35 55455165 secaeee eek at eee cee eeevecieet See 116
Nenes; Dr, J." . Researches, soc cs. cases cess oe eee te oe ieeie HO.) MSIE se 55
Journal. “American’ Astronomical: ++ *5*=sh=520: 4-25 5s=se0 veneeeene: -aruaeernoce 46
Journey to the Youcan, Russian Americaeeass- 32-42 sc2sssece-e eae eee secs nee A16
Sane, Dr‘ Marnctic observations ...2s..425-- + -6ss6- 5 leon Seseebeee ee a Mate 48
erica, i. Weplorations Wy. ss. tev. vans 5<850s pos eeewas asus sea Mea eee 48
Kirby, W. W. Journey to the Youcan, Russian America. -.-.-.-------.---------- 416
2 LI OO E100) a goes ay clipe ae rs ER A a AA 29
Lamont, Dr. J. Solar eclipse.of July,: 1860. ...... 2s) 2222225 o ec 2st och 5.) See 240
Lapham, Mr. Ancient monuments of Ohio and Lake Superior........------------ 1759
Meechoress.cci nos tose tose cet acess aeweses tessa ses toes pees ee eeesebhe fe eeee cece 32, 60
Tévacy of-Smithson.. “Residuaryyssss 203 sive ssasascecstesecanssseeasal el Re 11
Leidy, Dr. J. On extinet ox and sloth. 2... 2... 2220 e220 eee eee oe oe eee ee enn e eee 52

448 INDEX.

PAGE.
Leidy, Dr. Joseph. Cretaceous reptiles of the United States. ...............--- 17, 52, 66
Setters, - Secretary to Congress. =: 22204 s232cteevsssoscstces cle REN 3
-» Chancellor and Secretary. <<<. .222 ceeeceudssurex ste nce a 4
Seirary ts se e208 Yk Ie De, We ee, Ce ed 33, 57
Donations teams 18G4ee- ee. ee eee eGcceeeineowecs Ve eee! Se fs 86
Locke, Dr. Researches on terrestrial magnetism... ..-..............222.-.22----- 48
ioe, W. H: - - Diptera of North America... 2.0 soning AL ALLE ob 21
Macnetism. -Terresinallvy 2.12 222 As ISN LOPOOLNCOIEEE. DA EE leks 48
Maroetic observations by-Prof. Bache -£:=2:=:2c22.:s222:22:2 See ee 17,18
Maienotic Ghkervawens se r2 22262264 25.3 See eh a 48
March, Mr. - Explorations “by: =<2:2:222245:,20250: AEA eee a ee 50
Matile, Prof. Casts of ethnological specimens by..--.......-....---------------- 24
Mayer; Prof, Alfred M,- ‘Franslation -by -s0624s65s206ss0sesces~choscti Soe Ae 135
Mayer, Brantz. : - Antiquities of Mexico. .. 2.222.050. 2see) soloed deedec .. 38d. 55
BecGuaises-diess by: files csc scons sce nec asccavicnss caste sled ee 119
Bicek. iB. cheekslistiot fossils... 22. Gasecececa sete, Boe Neen oe Shp sth 21
Palwontalogy-of .Upper, Missouri. 25... 425 ..5 2688) ve eetebedeksh >. 17,52
members ex officio of the Institation, «0s sos ss0acese08 ons sks onnd ued MESSY EE 5
Memoir of Deldmbre. «220%. 64s.ccnccencos oc RMS SSRESS pe sie ee 125
BIG CORO Y™ a 2arsc ctr rr rtorrrinadn SSadiasaeaa ewes Sacewee Ree Rea e mae ReET 25, 42
Meteorological. material: «2... 2225.0. .08bs Hesse seleneesswoes = shee beaten keenaccs 108
stations and .abservels. .ss<te'sesd eset 3s ccansned £ <2 ecb hewes sehen nce 101
) aMfexico.., Scientific expedition 10. .... <0. ser<cccses tose cose ¥eente Meweceuene Sone 412
Michler, Dientenant. . Explorations by... +--+ ++.- tases: ace cetbinsbp oes bae 50
Mineralogy ---.----- Ge aeere eg occ g osnannteeces esc wae dee aaeee 6 = Se ee eee eee 53
Miscellancous collections ——-- . <= o- ~5.n=< cs asicone 96 == - See ee ee aaa ees 21
Missouri... Palzoantelory of. Upper .....~--.'2..< -<o+ secs as teens aenben en bee eE 17
Mitchell, Dr. S. W. Physiological researches. -.....------------- ee ee ee te 55
Morehouse, Dr» Phyciologi&al researchopy eanics 3 satin ~ acncien somes’ ef nae ue bos 55
Mornis; Meportjoncheniical arts ~...-. 255. csensek oma tane admis cae bie snes 48
Morlot, A. Study of high antiquity in Hurope........<062 << cub eset meri eect oame 400
Miososatrus., , Memoir ont 2.526 once cas pateaata eee eaeeeeeee — 2 ae ae eee 52
IMGISENM 1 soos casdose=Pseast See peedseep Resende ea eee 31,59
Museum and collections. Account of. ..---- 2... 22-022 ---0-5+-n= agitge-s--2---- 81
Museum: , Donations: to, in, 18645... 2.255 2 52 Se cee Seon sk oe es eee ete eee 86
Present condifion Of. 252.6. asc ebee eset mecesctssee eee aeteae eee 85
Watural history... Collections in ~~ -..s25+-s -cos'opre'esseas sa0> Sah cena ae 30
Neptune... Researches, on <2 6.4. cessipacies bee temeese Seth Meee Sere eee 46
Nevecomb,, Prof.,,U..S. N.. Researches.ion Neptune-¢ «.- 3.422522 ge ees-= =e 46
WNitre. — Nixplosibility of... 2-235 sceeso ss st. ~ seco see pee oe soe eee eee eee 48
North American Telegraphic Association. Aid furnished by ..-.-.--.------------- 28
Observationson Venus and Mars. 3 oe. soee ote asses eno-P eee eeeae nee te 46
Officers.of the Institution -... .-. soc e eee. =~ <2 ae eq terte sae nae See ae ee ae 5
Organization and eperation of the Institution. Sketch of......-..--....---------- 33
Osten Sacken, Baron.-..--.-. Soest cee atels sues soe ole ha rena eC 2 eS 21
Monograph of Limnobina destroyed by fire......-.-------------------- 23
fizond and! antozone. - on 5 oo recs enise cde ns canes wereeel emap eee eto eeeean wecmee 166
Palzontology of the Upper Missouri... ...-. .-2-.-2--<-s2s--.---- ae a ae 17
5

of, Upper, Missourian oo 8 sk of oo i Se ee et
Patterson, Hon, J.,W.,.Acts as Regent... <_<. .0- -.ce en ss 25 114, 115, 116, 117, 121, 122
Reabody.& Coii seco so 2h se 22 Saeed al ese saised Jc Se te ee
Pettenkofer, Prof. Mie! pies for testing results of perspiration and respiration. 235
Photography. Astronomical: < 222. 2)ccces\nccc nse cds cone toe pee ee aoa eee 48

INDEX. 449

PAGE.
PLLC TAD CTEMELL S.C) 22 a ee eae ea PR A Baie Air yl bir 47
Physical geography of the Mississippi valley .--.-...----c-e0e+cdeeceennes conees 52
satsiot New Mexico and Califone 622 geek jenn a teens Gene e eh acm 52
Plateau, J. Researches on figures of equilibrium of a liquid mass...........--.--- 285
eeyanwn0l.), Baplorations Dyin certain 2 as oem os a = ase a gndie Eoeetsmns oi 50
Biel de rot On-tadianth heats texs seca 5 Suet, ee eee ee 48
reservation. of copper. and iron in;salt water. s~-20 -..2a0.-s2n. one -nce0 bance - 191
IROSELV ai OULOMWOOU cesarean tse oe @ Sees SS au reracialanaios,aloin ARs a oS ee 196
PRR CO AIM OSIOUS 29H 2 Flan acim sn enatas Jorge das Sodom aaeee Le ee 404
Products of combustion of gun-cotton and gunpowder.............-..------------ 221
Programme of organization of the Institution...... ....2..-- 2... 22--sceececeeene 7
Publications of Institution. General account of...........2.2222---0-- eee eee nee 17
ACES. eINtenmMIxXhUre. Of: o2s25= ss8ce sce See Seen see ee eee 375
SPACE DOGt 5 2 ea ean eek Lea eons ee Te eR RIOee Bd eee See. See ee 48
iran, Charles. - Artificial shell-deposita-..---- 22222225232 12125. ta eee 370

EranelaiOns DY =.<< 46 cik. essnceemdeagey-saes Lae poe eee eee Dae 378
mesents Or the-Instittion: .~. = -.2s~.-27tustckamn cen em eetue eet tomes Chee eee 5
Heport, on chemical arts: .-.:-.-:-2-2-5-=- SEL LESRL Stee oe once es ent eee 48
Hmoport, +4 Destmetion: by-fire.<=+-: +5254: vese.Sssnshus une ote meee es eae cise Seema 13

Of ihe Executive Commiuticessese- cee ao owen se seco Pieeiehy sehen Pak pelea Wa

of tie Institution ‘for 1863. > Account of: :e=2etes--s2<--<<-i-4- see eseeee 23
Reptiles ofthe United: States. : ‘Cretaceous... --/--.- 4 22-2 225 cee neon wae cone 17
Researches on figures of equilibrium of a liquid mass. --..----------- BSE Be Se a= 285
Hevalis.al perspiration and -respiration=»>=.22>22 3. tes cose eee fe oe eee oe eee 235
BrnGes,..We.5) 32 does by sites = s2n crn e amas oe eee see eee eat ecap re | Maine “119
Riggs, Mr. On Dakota language.....-..---.-- By Sas Ste Seca SIL Sie rae Soe 55
FIG wi OL pk ae 2 ees eer ee cr eee ere 2d See cone tee eee ne acto 116, 120
chards Ac Oamn WN AMIGA LO cmceicke feo cote aaa ee Bee oe smote beet on ome ea ae 121
i clears aGrenerales nb hanks tQ= (2. ane wise eisenisinm 3 See aa cen ee seep eee aneenan 121
DanLonius «Or,<-Kexplorations: by... lla ote see cle oe teen tres sam treat 50
Schott, Charles A. Reduction of astronomical observations by-----..------------- 46
Se aihomty Minnie etre eee cre re Sta ate pee er tence ees ine Snes ee ee nota ete 115
Secchi). Piokemnesearches ‘on electric: cuttentis= 222 eases. wee ea ee ece see 48
pes, War uibtary of American lancuagd -. 06602 ot aceme donne a auen ad acne one 55
Bhelladeposits.. wAriiicials in New J ersey:.cs amo oo. eee ees as eee ome seine 370
MINGUS RO NOND Wes COMSt=. oes ore pes ate oe aie tera ainin aaa eines see een 53
mith; Bows, Uhanks fo wa ene ene enn een cena eee enecenens 121
Smithson. Residuary legacy of. - ” wuEte se «aie wien ade acisae eae ae 16
Society of Physics and Natural iatocy oF Bane TSGU 2 ee eae eens cone eee
Society of Physics and Natural History of Geneva, 1862..........--------------- 273
Solareclipse of July iS, 1860. = ee at ee We ocean eas: 240
Sonntag, Mr. Observations on terrestrial magnetism......-.--------------------- 48
Squier, Mr. Ancient monuments of Mississippi valley --.-----.-------------------- 55
Staniler pide Nic .088) Dy ine.o ae cba bad) -h< ayadee yncn ome e oon een cea see eee 119
Stanton, Hon. E. M. Aid furnished by-.-....----- oe SE See ee a ae 116

BEER ih ss «oss aetiee eee secant, as 3 ee et a owas porerine ee eee ee 121
Stansbury, Captain. Exploration by...-.--.-.-.---------------------+-+-------+- 50
State Department. Meteorological contributions forwarded to. -...----------------- 28
Study of high antiquity in Europe..--...--...---- .--4------ 2-0-2 + eo ee eee eee 400
Suckley,, Bra: Dxplorations.0£ 222 -< - 40 2-- onesie see a5e~ 2-522 -5 eee eeee sacar 48
Tables of weights and measures. ..---.-..--- -------------- -++- ---++--+- 222+ ------ 439
Taney, Chief Justice. Death of..------ 4 lee es ate O* , rere ap ee eC P A 13

29s

450 INDEX.

PAGE.

Taney, ‘Chief Jnstice: - Acisas Regent-\20-5-seeee eee. ES 114, 121
Weleeraph compamies.: ; Aid furnished bys22s-2222 7. Juste en oes eee ees oe 28
Melescope.e AITaper a tte iat ee BBO OUOS Eero HDS Gas OSS See OS RE 62
MeniBbrools.. “Lranslation ‘Wys=feeest eset ee = eee oes setae ome ee eee eae ee ore 235
Mecresimalimaonetism ss <.5sh- 5221s soaee sss ss sas ass ane eee eee eee eee 48
sittin (Min. + hanics\ tOs 2s, ssin ae cman =~ so totan sd as Se badly a. Sate! 121
Worrey, Dr. J. Plants of New Mexico and Califomia.- 2.222.222 2-22-22 l2.e2be 52
Wotten. General. « Death Ofe tas 622s sa0 sop sos eccaesie on coelenacacoe see ae 13
Motten, General. - <2 -.cee en Sess 205523 (esc e rece ec cece creche cee ce eaee 114, 121
Trowbridge, Lieutenant. .Nxploration bys. ois cs. (cee Rack 2 eisise area ee eke 48
Wromball” Bon, da) Acts. as Regent. +... -.-ssstitnnetecie. tee ene 114, 115, 121, 122
Gioyon,. Prederiek. : Crania helvetica. .... 2:2 ssksene Seep - meets wer Ss ates 282
Mamer Dir se mnook jatpon! 228. ota hoes bocce eceaids: Hutte see eE oe 55
Wnited States. Aid furnished to government of......:...-.---.-- -<-------- ==- = 14
Warden J. + Death Of. < <<: s2tegee coc oue canes ocen ERR eRe ERE aon NSE aoe 12]
Meretaizon and! the, atmosphere. <n sae sins isles dines a cise hose eee eee 178
Velocity of light. Essay on- -.-. ters: Se ecse vaSecnesee => ser Rees. Kies 135
Memnsand Mars. Observations 08.2 ---s onc so ocn caenein come ve cep bise eeb ee en epee 46
Sonmebraniz, Or. Explosions Dye ose sces sieras eta ae eee = ee a eee 50
Von Karolyi, Lieutenant. Products of combustion of gun-cotton and gunpowder... 221
Wallach, Richard. Acts as Regent.....----..-.-- sos 113, 115, 116, 117, 120, 121, 122
Wicbb. nev MeWe. Drapersiiclescopeses om «see -jerinmotl -< ae eie nae er aeaiaa 62
Weibel OriCharles Mi’ Analysis: oj alts. 25. sin <ojptee home ee co eee eee 48
Jha (PaO IE EN MASH Aeaaeoeeoos oss ce sconos eed Sees coe es 29
orenChes Ole: ge se eoscc ote l pee secu ol tec ceo eee ela ee ee 30

Ozone and antozone ...----- - Red rep Gms Fane eee enee ate ae 166
Whittlesey, C. Fluctuation of level of great American lakes.......---.-.-.------ 52
Wood, Dr. H. C. Monograph of Myriapoda destroyed by fire --...-----.----.---- 23
Wioods MPereservalion Of. s22s02 cs. ooscis oa) Sam Sane eee ocak ps cpisceniy-emeeesere 196
Woodbury. Captainie Mixplorations: Dy 2- ace. soe am ta lale a alm iale ee clare = ete ei 50
Wark? Lieutenant. . Explorations By. 5 -1452.o-2-i<05 4a pa date bee eee 50
yp shiver. SexploreiiOns. Dy f---\ coc ce< ooo ome wan mene een eae oe ee 50
Windemun; G.-- Explorations by -----~ -.- sqsesamcens.cachiosne en fan mone s Bane 50
Wayman Drs). “Anatomy: of ans pipiens: - 5.4.22 oo on ace ok ae asia Oe 55
Menem hehm.! -Bacplorations by. -5..0.- .- 22 taaoaat a eee ap eg ee ems 48
MODUUT IRNEMEPO= oo. ose cess wees kcta ones eons snes yauenewnc emma anne pee eenGiee 55
Qworya MGGUGtAl.). oat vleie Samia ta a aisele =cla cele seer ele aisle aieiie ere ee eee ia 53

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